The Krama or “gradation” tradition existed in Kashmir where it is known
about through the works of the author Abhinavgupta (ca. 975–1025 ad) and
the anonymous Maha ̄nayapraka ̄s ́a(The Illumination of the Great Way) which can
be dated between the late tenth and thirteenth centuries. In contrast to the S ́aiva
Siddha ̄nta in which Sada ̄s ́iva is worshipped without a consort, in the Krama
system the Goddess is worshipped without a male consort as a form of Ka ̄lı ̄
(Ka ̄lasam.kars.in.ı ̄), surrounded by a retinue of 12 identical forms (Sanderson
1988: 197–8). Within the Krama system these forms are identified with ema-
nations of pure consciousness and Abhinavagupta describes the process of
the projection of pure consciousness into apparent manifestation as objects
of knowledge and its contraction back into itself. The expansion (vika ̄sa) of the
cosmos in manifestation is the contraction (sam.koca) of consciousness, while
conversely the contraction of manifestation becomes the expansion of con-
sciousness (TS 29–30; see also Silburn 1975: 134–90, 193–4). The explanation
of existence is to be found in these goddesses who are the impulse (udyoga) for
experience, its manifestation (avabha ̄sana), the tasting of it (carvan.a), and finally
its destruction (vila ̄pana) (Sp Nir p. 6). In consonance with this idealism, the
Krama denied the vedic distinction between purity and impurity in its rituals.
Closely associated with the Krama are the Trika and Kaula traditions which
merge at the higher levels of their initiatory hierarchy. The Trika is a particu-
larly important form of S ́aivism which came to dominate Kashmir, and is gen-
erally understood as “Kashmir” S ́aivism. This form of S ́aivism was absorbed into
the householder life in Kashmir and developed a sophisticated theology that
became known as the recognition school (pratyabhijña ̄). It was strongly influen-
tial on the S ́aivism of the south and on the Goddess tradition of the S ́rı ̄ Vidya ̄.
The root text of the tradition is the Ma ̄linı ̄vijayottara Tantra, around which text
Abhinavagupta centered his monumental exposition, the Tantra ̄loka (“Light
on Tantra”), and two other works, the Tantrasa ̄ra(“Essence of Tantra”) and his
commentary on the text (Mal Vart, Hanneder 1998). Abhinavagupta claimed
that the text is the essence of the nondualist Tantras, although Sanderson has
argued that the text itself is in fact dualistic in its orientation (Sanderson 1993:
291–306). Sanderson observes that Abhinavagupta’s basing his teaching on
this text shows his desire to ground his idealism in a text that had wide circula-
tion and appeal (Sanderson 1995: 22). This idealism comprised the central claim
that all manifestation, including the self, is identical with the pure conscious-
ness (sam.vit, caitanya) of S ́iva and to therefore qualify the Saiddha ̄ntika distinc-
tion between Lord, self and bond. Liberation is not becoming equal to S ́iva, as
the Siddha ̄nta believed, but rather the realization of the nondistinction between
self and S ́iva or Ka ̄lı ̄ as absolute consciousness.
To show that this realization is the overall goal of practice (sa ̄dhana), Abhi-
navagupta adopted the Trika pantheon of three goddesses, Para ̄, Para ̄para ̄, and
Apara ̄, from where the tradition derives its name, showing that they are all mani-
festations of consciousness. Consciousness is at the esoteric heart of the Trika
which Abhinavagupta identified with the Krama Goddess Ka ̄lasam.kars.inı ̄, and
this rejection of dualism at a theological level is reflected in the rejection of the
the s ́aiva traditions 213