continued to the present, and is closely connected with the cult of the Lord of
the eye (Netrana ̄tha) found in the Netra Tantra. Both of these texts show con-
cerns with special rites of protection, exorcism and rites for a desired goal
(ka ̄mya) such as the destruction of enemies or seduction of a desired person.
While both the Netra and Svacchanda cults conformed to the ritual purity of the
S ́aiva Siddha ̄nta, the latter contained the worship of impure forms of the deity.
The majority of all S ́aivas were probably followers of these cults rather than
the more esoteric and demanding Trika and Krama (Sanderson 1995: 22–3).
Although popular, these texts present quite complex systems of visualization
(Brunner 1974) and their deities as emanations of Netrana ̄tha tend to be fero-
cious, a characteristic of the Ka ̄pa ̄lika cults. The Netra Tantra, although the text
itself has connections with royalty, also bears witness to popular possession and
exorcism rites which were probably pervasive among lower social levels. Indeed,
one of the main tasks of the orthoprax brahmin was to prevent possession. These
“demons” (bhu ̄ta) and powerful female deities or “mothers” (ma ̄tr.) enter through
the “hole” (chidra) of the shadow of impure men and women whose behaviour
is bad (dura ̄ca ̄ra), and who have neglected their ritual obligations, so causing the
evil eye (dr.s.t.ipa ̄ta) to fall upon them (NT 19. 34, 45–6).
The classification of possessing beings in the sources is a fascinating ex-
ample of the way in which cosmological taxonomies link in to S ́aiva cosmolog-
ical structures. The Netra Tantraand the Kashmiri S ́aiva theologian Ks.emara ̄ja’s
commentary list several classes of being who possess and who must be ap-
peased through different ritual offerings. These beings include a class of female
deities called “mothers” (ma ̄tr.), the “removers” (vina ̄yakas), “demon-grabbers”
(bhu ̄tagraha), and others (NT 19. 55–80 and commentary), who are classified in
a broader scheme depending upon their motives for possession. Thus there are
those desirous of meat offerings (balika ̄ma), those desirous of sexual pleasure
(bhoktuka ̄ma) and those desiring to harm and kill (hantuka ̄ma) (N TUd 168).
These malevolent powers are within the cosmic hierarchy assumed by the S ́aiva
systems. They exist within a family (kula) of powers with a deity at the head and
are indeed, particles or fragments (am.s ́a) of that higher being. Through appeas-
ing the Lord of the family of the possessor, the possessor leaves the possessed
person (NT 19.80b–81a). For example, if possessed by the Vina ̄yakas, one wor-
ships their Lord Vighnes ́a (i.e. Gan.es ́a), offering him sweetmeat, meat, and plenty
of alcohol (NT 19. 63–5). Or if possessed by the innumerable mothers (ma ̄tr.)
who desire to do harm, then one should perform worship (prapu ̄jayet) for the
great mothers (maha ̄ma ̄tr.), namely the famous seven or eight goddesses Brahmı ̄,
Mahes ́varı ̄ and so on, from whose wombs they have originated (NT 19. 55–6).
The lower beings in the hierarchy are emanations or particles of the higher. Once
the higher being is appeased with offerings of flowers, rice, and the four kinds
of meat from domestic and wild, aquatic and flying animals (N TUd 9. 59–61a,
p. 166), then also are the lower manifestations.
While the Netra Tantra is from the north, similar concerns are shown
in the S ́aiva Siddha ̄nta ritual treatise, probably composed in Kerala, the
I ̄ss ́a ̄nas ́ivagurudeva-paddhati. This is the only Saiddha ̄ntika text that I am aware of
the s ́aiva traditions 215