conducts such practices as the repetition of Kr.s.n.a’s names. The second stage
involves ritualized copulation with meditation on the divine couple. In the third
stage the adept, transcending all physical desires, experiences the eternal divine
union of Ra ̄dha ̄ and Krs.n.a which is pure bliss (M. M. Bose 1930, passim; Dimock
1966: 124–248). Though it had no consideration for orthodox social concep-
tions and believed in the personal evaluation of moral principles, the Sahajiya ̄
tradition with its esoteric rituals conducted in secrecy did not enter into conflict
with society (Dimock 1966: 105, 121). The Sahajiya ̄ tradition is said to no
longer exist, but the possibility of its continuation in contemporary India is
evoked (Dimock 1966: 249).
Other minor movements inspired by the Caitanya tradition remain less well
known due to a lack of documentation. Karta ̄bha ̄ja ̄s recognized Karta ̄ba ̄ba ̄
(end of the eighteenth century) of Navadvı ̄pa and his descendants as their only
deity. The Spas.t.ada ̄yakas, followers of Ru ̄para ̄ma Kabira ̄ja, lived in celibacy in
monasteries which gathered men and women (Renou 1985a: 646–7). A group
of Vais.n.avas of Orissa, called the pañcasakha ̄s, “the five friends,” who worshipped
the formless Kr.s.n.a, are also said to have been followers of Caitanya (Majumdar
1969: 240; Mukherjee 1978: 313–14).
Except Vallabha’s, Caitanya’s, and related traditions, mention must also be
made of S ́an.karadeva (1449–1548). The tradition which claims him as its
founder was independent from the Caitanya tradition though seventeenth-
century hagiography mentions a meeting of both the religious leaders. It
remained confined mostly to Assam. Twenty-seven works, written in Sanskrit
and Assamese, are attributed to S ́an.karadeva. Among them six plays (called
na ̄t.as,na ̄t.akas, and ya ̄tra ̄s) still extant show that the extensive use of dramatic
performances was from the beginning a main feature of his tradition. His teach-
ings were based on devotion as explained in the Bha ̄gavatapura ̄n.a. He and his
first disciple, Ma ̄dhava, a main propagandist of the tradition, were ka ̄yasthas.
S ́an.karadeva’s granddaughters and great-granddaughters played an important
role in the creation of its monasteries, called sattras, where monks and married
devotees lived in separate quarters. Soon after S ́an.karadeva’s death the tradi-
tion subdivided into several currents; the four main ones are usually counted
Brahma-, Nika ̄-, Purus.a-, and Ka ̄la-sam.hatis. The ceremony of conversion to this
tradition is called s ́aran.a. The main object of worship is a book (normally the
Bha ̄gavatapura ̄n.a) while the use of images is not strictly forbidden. Objects used
by the gurus of the tradition are also worshipped (Neog 1965).
Late Vais.n.ava Tantras
Apart from Pa ̄ñcara ̄tra texts, several Tantric works were of special importance
for the different Vais.n.ava traditions. The Ra ̄ma ̄nanda tradition favored the use of
several texts, like an Agastyasam.hita ̄ (different from the Pa ̄ñcara ̄tra text of the
same title and probably from the twelfth century) for their worship of Ra ̄ma. The
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