Vedic poets. In fact a demon called Svarbha ̄nu in the R.gveda5.40.5 seems to have
been regarded as the cause of eclipses. This is the only occurrence ofsvarbha ̄nu
in the R.gvedaand there is no evidence that this demon was identified as graha.
In epics, however, svarbha ̄nuis explicitly called “graha” (Maha ̄bha ̄rata6.13.40ab
andRa ̄ma ̄yan.a3.22.11cd).
Old references to planets In one passage of the Atharvavedaagrahaappears as an
eclipse demon. The oldest text which mentions Ra ̄hu as an eclipse demon is the
Chandogya-Upanis.ad(8.13). The Maitra ̄yan.ı ̄-Upanis.ad(7.6) enumerates Ra ̄hu
and Ketu along with Saturn (s ́ani) as one of the semi-deities. But the date of
these passages is problematical.
It is only after the period of Greek settlement in Bactria (third century bc) that
explicit references to planets are attested in Sanskrit texts.
TheArthas ́a ̄strais one of the oldest texts which clearly mentions Jupiter and
Venus by the name Br.haspati and S ́ukra, respectively:
Its ascertainment (is made) from the position, motion and impregnation of Jupiter,
from the rising, setting and movements of Venus and from the modification in
the nature of the Sun. From the Sun (is known) the successful sprouting of seeds,
from Jupiter the formation of stalks in the crops, from Venus rain. (Arthas ́a ̄stra
2.24.7–8)The data of the text has not been well established. Probably its oldest part was
composed about two hundred years before Christ. It is evident that this passage
concerns weather prognostics. Pingree (1981) regards such prognostics as of
Babylonian origin.
Nine grahas without fixed order TheGa ̄rgyajyotis.a(between bcandad)^2 arranges
the nine grahasin a strange order: Moon, Ra ̄hu, Jupiter, Venus, Ketu, Saturn,
Mars, Mercury, and Sun. Here Ketu (almost always in plural form) is not yet the
tail of Ra ̄hu but comets. The great epic Maha ̄bha ̄rataabounds in the enumera-
tion ofgrahas,^3 but the order of the enumeration is not fixed, nor is the week-
day order attestable. Ketu is not always included in the group ofgrahas. Often it
is called dhu ̄ maketu(“smoke-bannered”) and no reference to the single “Ketu”
without similar modification is found in the Maha ̄bha ̄rata. This evidence shows
that there was a period in India when all the nine grahaswere known but the
order was not yet fixed.
To this period belongs the S ́a ̄rdu ̄ lakarn.a ̄vada ̄na. The passage which concerns
us runs as follows:
Now, oh Pus.karasa ̄ rin, I will talk about grahas. Hear about them. They are
Venus, Jupiter, Saturn Mercury, Mars, Sun, and the Lord of the stars (Moon).
(Mukhopadhyaya 1954: 53)382 michio yano