(Soma). However, as Kuiper (1962: 43) has pointed out, “understanding a single
mythological figure isolated from the context of the mythological system” is dif-
ficult, and a more structuredarrangement of (semi-)divine beings and their func-
tions in their relevant spheres should be undertaken. They include the heavenly
sphere with the deities and their ancestors, other heavenly beings such as the
Gandharvas, the R.s.is, human ancestors (pitr.); further the mundane sphere with
human beings and certain spirits, and the nether world with beings such as the
Na ̄ga, and finally, various demonic beings such as raks.as,kimı ̄din, and the force
of destruction, Nirr.ti, all of whom are governed by the universal force of “active
truth” (R.ta) and its counterpart “deceit, cheating” (Druh). These beings and enti-
ties are set in juxtaposition or opposition on the various levels of the universe.
For example, the promiscuous, extra-societal group of Veda students “on leave,”
the Vra ̄tyas here on earth, have their counterparts in heaven (daivya vra ̄tya,
Gandharva, Vasilkov 1991), as well as in the netherworld (Na ̄gas).
The most important (R.g)Vedic gods include the following. Agni is deified
(ritual) “Fire,” one of the few gods that are actually present andvisible on the
offering ground. He receives and transports offerings to the gods.
Indra, originally called Vr.trahan “beating the resistance” (Avest. VRreJragna,
Benveniste and Renou 1934) is the leader of the present generation of the gods
and a major actor in the early stages of creation: he pushes up the sky, and pre-
pares the oikumeneby opening the Vala cave of the Dawns (Schmidt 1968a), by
killing the Dragon Vr.tra, and by stealing the Soma (Brown 1968; Lüders 1951:
183ff.; Kuiper 1983; also: Sieg 1926, Schneider 1971, Dandekar 1979). Indra
also is the archetypal tricky, voracious, and oversexed leader of the A ̄rya in the
frequent battles among themselves and with the non-A ̄rya population of the
Greater Panjab (E. W. Hopkins 1908, Rau 1957, Dandekar 1997). Many of his
characteristics go back to IE (Watkins 1995) and even to the preceding Eurasian
mythology. The Maruts, a sort ofMännerbund, are often associated with Indra.
Soma “the one pressed out,” is the deified drink, as well as the plant from which
it is derived (also called by the Central Asian substrate name am ̆
.
s ́u). Without
drinking Soma, Indra could not kill Vr.tra (Oberlies 1989, 1991, 1998).
The A ̄dityas, “the sons of Aditi” are a group of 7/8 (later 12) divinities that
were at first interpreted as nature gods (Bergaigne 1878–83, III: 110ff., Keith
1925, 96–104, Hillebrandt (1927–9: 2ff., 41ff.). However, they are personifi-
cations of the most important social functions (Meillet 1907, Thieme 1938,
1957a, Dumézil 1934, 1958b, Gonda 1972): Varun.a is a stern but just king-
figure, of unclear etymology (Lüders 1951/1959, Thieme 1957a, Kuiper 1983);
Mitra, Varun.a’s constant partner, is a personification of tribal agreements (mitra,
ntr. “agreement”) (Meillet 1907, Brereton 1981); and Aryaman “Arya-hood,
hospitality” that of clan relationship and marriage. Further, the popular Bhaga
“Luck” (bhaga“share”), is god of good luck, and similarly Am.s ́a “lot” (am.s ́a
“lot”). The As ́vins (Na ̄satya) are divine twins who perform miraculous cures and
rescues.
Us.as, “Dawn,” is the most prominent goddess, and the often-praised friend of
poets. Other deified natural phenomena, who can be traced back to the Indo-
72 michael witzel