European and even to earlier Eurasian periods, include Su ̄rya “the male belong-
ing to the sun”; Dyaus “Heaven, Sky” (or Dyaus Pitar “Father Sky”) and
his consort, Pr.thivı ̄ (Ma ̄ta ̄) (Mother) “Earth,” the A ̄pas “(flowing) Waters,” often
called “divine ladies” (Narten 1971); Va ̄yu or Va ̄ta “Wind,” and Parjanya
“Thunder.” As elsewhere, fire is regarded as masculine and water as a feminine
deity, while the “elements” fire and water exist separately as archaic neuters
(athar-/*peh 2 ur-, udr-/udn-) – a very old, Indo-European and perhaps pan-
Eurasian notion (Witzel 1992). Many rites and customs (offering meat balls to
the three closest male ancestors, marriage, fire ritual, horse sacrifice, etc.) are of
Indo-European age as well.
Similarly, the notion of an opposition between groups of gods (Deva and
Asura), which is later expressed by “The Devas and the Asuras were in con-
tention” (Br. style texts), goes back to the Indo-Iranian and even the IE periods.
In the RV, however, asurais often used as epithet of the most respected Devas,
e.g. Varun.a and Agni, and in early Iranian religion ahurasignifies the most
prominent god, Ahura Mazda ̄“Lord Wisdom.” This difference is one of “the
central problems of Vedic religion” (Kuiper 1975: 112, W. E. Hale 1986). It
seems (with Kuiper) that the Asuras were the primordial gods, challenged and
defeated by the upstart Devas, similar to that of the Titans by the Olympian gods.
The constant contest between the Devas and the Asuras has its mundane
counterpart in the R.gvedic opposition between the immigrating A ̄ryaand their
acculturated affiliates on the one hand, and the previous local inhabitants, the
DasyuorDa ̄saon the other; this opposition is replaced in post-RV texts by that
of the A ̄ryaandS ́u ̄dra. It is expressed most notably in the New Year ritual
(Maha ̄vrata rite), when the old order breaks down temporarily and carnival-like
chaos reigns among the gods and in society. Vedic ritual enforces the social role
ofdeva/asuraanda ̄rya/s ́u ̄draprecisely at such occasions.
Praja ̄pati (“Lord of creatures”) is a very marginal figure in the late RV, but
becomes in the Post-RV prose texts the central creator god embodying the power
of the ritual (Gonda 1984, 1986, 1989).
The great Hindu gods Vis.n.u and S ́iva are not yet prominent in Vedic. Vis.n.u
appears almost only in his role as taking three steps towards heaven and S ́iva as
a frightening god under his names “Rudra,” ghora“terrible,” or simply as asau
devam“that god.” The name S ́iva“the kindly/auspicious one” occurs only in the
late Ved. Kat.ha A ̄ran.yaka. The process leading to their later prominence is rather
controversial. Kuiper (1962) sees Vis.n.u as a central mediating figure between
the older Asuras and the younger Devas.
R.gvedic Ritual
The important relation between myth and ritual is very evident in the Vedic tra-
dition: Agni and Soma are ritual objects anddivinities with a developed personal
mythology; mythic episodes are recited in liturgical context. Later on, in the
vedas and upanis.ads 73