c.e.), among his hundreds of other works, wrote treatises on yoga, not-
ably the Yoga-binduand DÓrÓsÓti-samuccaya ̄. Jainism influenced classical
Yoga’s ethics, especially its inclusion of the fundamental Jain principle of
ahims ̇ a: ̄ non-injury.^15
KuÓnÓdalin ̄ı Yoga, part of the T ̄antric tradition, uses the esoteric phys-
iology of cakras, ‘wheels’ or energy-centers along the axis of the spine,
and nad ̄ısor ‘channels’ (literally ‘rivers’) through which pr ̄aÓna, the life-
force, circulates. KuÓnÓdalin ̄ı is conceived as cosmic energy, depicted as a
snake coiled at the lowest of the cakras. The yogin who practices
KuÓnÓdalin ̄ı Yoga aims to redirect his psychospiritual energy, in the form of
the feminine principleKuÓnÓdalin ̄ı Íakti, upward through the cakrasto the
crown of the head, where it unites with the masculine principle Íiva, re-
sulting in sam ̄adhi. Yogic practices such as pr ̄aÓn ̄ayama ̄ or control of the
breath and vital energy are thought to activate kuÓnÓdalin ̄ı’sascent, culmi-
nating in attainment of the enlightened consciousness called samadhi ̄.^16
The well-known HaÓtha Yoga incorporates doctrines of KuÓnÓdalin ̄ı
Yoga. HaÓtha Yoga emphasizes physical purification, ̄asanaor postures,
and pr ̄aÓnay ̄ ama. ̄ Consonant with T ̄antrism, HaÓtha Yoga regards the per-
fection of the body as instrumental to attainment of liberation.HaÓtha
means ‘force’ or ‘forceful.’ Figuratively, hasignifies the heating energy of
the sun, and represents inhalation, while thadenotes the moon’s cooling
energy and represents exhalation. HaÓtha Yoga’s main text, the HaÓtha-
yoga-prad ̄ıpika ̄, presents techniques of activating kuÓnÓdalin ̄ıenergy for
the sake of spiritual progress.^17 HaÓtha Yoga is not merely a system of
physical cultivation: the HaÓtha-yoga-prad ̄ıpik ̄aintegrates physical disci-
plines with the higher spiritual disciplines of classical or R ̄aja Yoga, and
HaÓtha texts present HaÓtha Yoga as a means to R ̄aja Yoga.^18 However,
Tantra and HaÓtha Yoga are diametrically opposed to classical Yoga in
that they consider enlightenment to involve illumination of body as well
as consciousness.
The different types of yoga may be considered in terms of six peri-
ods in the history of yoga: (1) Proto-Yoga, (2) Pre-classical, (3) Epic, (4)
Classical, (5) Post-classic, and (6) Modern yoga. Evidence about the
Proto-yoga of the period of the Indus Valley civilization (c. 2600–1500
b.c.e.) exists in archaeological findings such as statues and seals with im-
ages of persons in yoga postures, and also references in the first Indian
texts, the Vedas. Pre-classical yoga consists of the first detailed articula-
tions of yogic practices and meditation in the early UpaniÓsads, dating
from c. 800 b.c.e.Epic yoga (c. 500 b.c.e.–200 c.e.) designates the yoga
of the middle UpaniÓsads, and the great epic the Mah ̄abh ̄arata, which
92 religious therapeutics