includes the revered scripture the Bhagavadag ̄ıt ̄a. For persons of different
natures, the G ̄ıt ̄aoffers three yogic paths: Jñ ̄ana Yoga, the yoga of knowl-
edge, Karma Yoga, the yoga of action [BhG 3.3], and Bhakti Yoga, the
yoga of devotion to the Lord [BhG 18.57]. Jñ ̄ana Yoga is cultivation of
discriminative knowledge and the use of the mind to free itself from mat-
ter and bondage. Karma Yoga is the carrying out of one’s earthly and
spiritual duties, and serving others, without desire or aversion. Bhakti
Yoga, related to both Jñ ̄ana Yoga and Karma Yoga, is grounded in adora-
tion of the Lord and offering all one’s actions to him.
Classical Yoga (c. second/third century c.e.) denotes the Yoga
systematized in Patañjali’s Yoga-s ̄utrasand expounded by extensive com-
mentaries in subsequent centuries. The Yoga-sutras ̄ distill elements of ear-
lier forms of yoga, and systematize an eight-fold program of disciplines
culminating in enlightened realization of Self as consciousness—in this
life, free of subjugation to embodiment—and after this life, free of a body
and its potential rebirth and suffering.
Post-classical yoga (c. 200–1900 c.e.) includes HaÓtha Yoga, T ̄antric
yogas, and the Yoga UpaniÓsads. In general, the approximately twenty
Yoga UpaniÓsads incorporate the subtle physiology of Tantra’s KuÓnÓdalin ̄ı
Yoga. The Yoga UpaniÓsads do not accept the dualistic metaphysics of
classical Yoga, but instead advocate Ved ̄anta, the non-dualistic meta-
physics dominating Indian philosophy and religion from the time of the
earliest UpaniÓsadsto the present day. Several of the Yoga UpaniÓsads list
four varieties of yoga:
Yoga, although one, is according to practice and usage, O Brahman!
Differentiated as of various kinds [chief among them are]: Mantra-yoga,
Laya-, what is known as HaÓtha- and R ̄aja-yoga.
Yoga-tattvopaniÓsad, 19Mantra Yogaaims for dissolution of mind by mantras, sacred Sanskrit
sounds that are chanted or silently meditated on. Mantrasare imbued
with qualities thought to contribute to meditative awareness and attain-
ment of liberation. Mantra Yoga also employs pr ̄aÓn ̄ay ̄amaand cultivation
of the ascent of kuÓnÓdalin ̄ı. Laya Yoga, the yoga of dissolution [√li, ‘to dis-
solve’], embraces theories and practices of KuÓnÓdalin ̄ı Yoga. Laya yoga in-
corporates methods such as meditation on ‘the inner sound’ ( ́sadba),
leading to dissolution of mental activity. In Modern yoga, dating from
the twentieth century, the work of Íri Aurobindo (1872–1950) is preemi-
nent. His Purna Yoga ̄ or ‘Integral Yoga’ incorporates elements of R ̄aja,
HaÓtha, the G ̄ıt ̄a’syogas of action, knowledge, and devotion, and the
classical yoga as a religious therapeutic 93