KuÓnÓdalin ̄i Yoga
Yoga’s universality shines beautifully in its many forms throughout
countless Indian schools and sects, Hindu and non-Hindu, Vedic and
T ̄antric. The incorporation of yoga-practices in a range of Indian reli-
gious traditions, and yoga’s thriving in the world beyond India, attest to
the broad applicability of its methods. There is no pure Veda-based
yoga nor pure Tantra-based yoga. Though Patañjali’s classical Yoga is
one of the six ̄astikaor Veda-accepting dar ́sanas, it contains elements of
T ̄antric yoga, a main characteristic of which is the cosmic physiology of
the cakras(‘wheels’) and nad ̄ıs (‘rivers’). These are, respectively, the
centers and channels of energy in the psychophysical organism. Al-
though classical Yoga sees the body in terms of S ̄amkhya’s five elementsÓ
and Åyurveda’s three dhatus ̄ or supports, the texts of classical Yoga also
contain references to the subtle physiology central in Tantra. For exam-
ple, in the Tattva-vai ́s ̄arad ̄ıV ̄acaspati discusses meditation on ‘the lotus
of the heart’ between the chest and abdomen, and refers to the suÓsumÓna ̄,
the main energy-channel leading to the highest cakra[TV 1.36]. The
Yoga-s ̄utras’mystical aspect is evident in Section 3, Vibhuti-p ̄ ̄ada, the
section on extraordinary powers. An example is knowledge of the
systems of the body attainable by samyamaÓ , meditative concentration,
on the navel-cakra[YS 3.30].
Tantra incorporates and adapts the various yogas of the Yoga
UpaniÓsads, which preceded Patañjali’s Yoga-sutras ̄. The approximately
twenty Yoga UpaniÓsads present a range of yoga practices, including the
classical elements of moral restraints and commitments, postures,
pra ̄Ónay ̄ ̄ama, sense-withdrawal, and meditation leading to samadhi ̄. But
unlike classical Yoga, the Yoga UpaniÓsads emphasize the subtle physiol-
ogy of cakrasand nad ̄ıs.The Yoga UpaniÓsads in general assume Brah-
manas the one real, and take yoga’s goal to be the realization of Brah-
man.^30 Dasgupta finds that T ̄antric and other modes of worship were
influenced by the Yoga UpaniÓsads, and that some yoga practices were de-
veloped in accordance with T ̄antric Íaiva and Íakta doctrines.^31
Tantra maintains that there can be cooperation rather than opposi-
tion between enjoyment in the world (bhukti) and the way of liberation
(mukti): “Tantra is a meeting ground of bhoga(enjoyment) and yoga.”^32
While classical Yoga aims to ‘burn up’ the samskÓ aras ̄ or seed-potentials
of action, Tantra’s approach is the maturation (parip ̄aka) of seed-desires
by exhausting them through their fruition. Mishra criticizes classical
Yoga’s concept of ‘burning’ the samskÓ aras ̄. While actual seeds can be
146 religious therapeutics