Annex B – Technology review
functions.^65 Similarly, L-tyrosine has shown positive effects on cognition during acute
stress.^66Cognition enhancing drugs typically affect simple, low-level functions such as alertness
and memory rather than top-level functions such as intelligence. They change brain
states, sometimes in complex ways, but do not add any new information to the system.
In general, they function best when managing trade-offs between different cognitive
styles such as broad to focused attention.^67 The effects have so far been modest, though
there is also some evidence they may benefit low functioning individuals but impede
high functioning ones.^68 They can also involve trade-offs between different functions, for
example, attention and creativity or reaction speed and mental flexibility.^69 Augmentation
of low-level cognitive abilities is likely to be useful when applied well but this is likely to
be difficult, since the therapeutic and enhancing effects can act in the short or long term,
making dosage and effect somewhat unpredictable. Some substances may also have
unknown interaction effects, lead to addiction and changes in tolerance.Nevertheless, drugs and supplements can provide a convenient platform for various
forms of augmentation and their effectiveness may be further enhanced in the future. By
combining them with biotechnology and nanotechnology, or advanced machine learning
for optimisation and individualisation, significant improvements can be expected.
Micro-dosing of psychedelic and other drugs could also be used to improve creativity and
out of the box thinking.^70Emotional enhancement
Emotional enhancement is a wide field, including well-being, control over emotions, social
bonding and different kinds of affection. As current therapeutic and recreational drug
use indicates these effects are tremendously important to individuals and society but
also relatively poorly understood. While emotional enhancement may sound relatively
unimportant, even trivial, the effects on the individual can be profound.^71There has been significant interest in understanding how the modulation of the oxytocin
system can enhance perception of social cues and emotional expression, positive65 Levin, R., et al., (2015), Journal of Psychiatric Research, ‘Behavioral and cognitive effects of the
N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor co-agonist D-serine in healthy humans: initial findings’.
66 Banderet, L. E. and Lieberman, H. R., (1989), Brain Research Bulletin, ‘Treatment with tyrosine, a
neurotransmitter precursor, reduces environmental stress in humans’.
67 Bostrom, N. and Sandberg, A., (2009), Human Enhancement, ‘The wisdom of nature: an evolutionary
heuristic for human enhancement’.
68 Muller, U., et al., (2004), Psychopharmacology, ‘Effects of modafinil on working memory processes in
humans’.
69 Mohamed, A., (2014), The Journal of Creative Behavior, ‘The Effects of Modafinil on Convergent and
Divergent Thinking of Creativity: A Randomized Controlled Trial’.
70 Anderson, T., et al., (2019), Psychopharmacology, ‘Microdosing psychedelics: personality, mental
health, and creativity differences in microdosers’.
71 Kahane, G., (2011), Enhancing Human Capacities, ‘Reasons to feel, reasons to take pills’.