Annex B – Technology reviewcommunication trust, interpersonal synchrony and coordination, and prosocial behaviour.^72
Understanding of the neural underpinnings of various forms of sexual and romantic
emotions is increasing, and there is significant interest in studying and applying these
findings. While manipulation of libido will be achievable, if not now, then relatively soon,
strengthening of pair-bond emotions is further away, but it also appears feasible.^73
Motivation enhancement
Motivation enhancement aims to increase drive and focus and is a major goal of smart
drugs. Motivation enhancement is relatively well understood in its simplest forms (for
example, stimulants). The main forms of motivation enhancement are likely to be
modulation of the arousal and dopaminergic systems, today typically done using stimulant
drugs. Attention is linked to the cholinergic system. At present the neuroscience of
boredom is only partially understood but might become amenable to control.^74 Some
cognition enhancing drugs also have motivational effects (especially stimulants), driving
users to perform well.
It might be possible to fine-tune motivation in other ways, for example, by having
software steer attention towards relevant stimuli or implement conditioning to reward/
discourage actions or thoughts. Managing boredom, attention and drive are important in
many situations. Like cognitive augmentation the prosocial and workaholic applications
avoid the stigma of recreational drugs that may hold back other forms of emotional
enhancement.
Potential and issues. Substances often rely on metabolism to trigger the intended
outcome. This involves several steps of biotransformation as the substance is converted
into the active ingredient. This can result in unintended outcomes. For example, when
intended muscle gain is accompanied by emotional instability. Drugs can be prepared
using nanomaterials to release the active ingredient in the exact location intended, better
controlling the drugs effect. It has, however, been difficult to find suitable nanomaterials
and some of those that at first appear to be suitable have been found to be poisonous.^75
Enhancing feelings of trust and empathy is likely to be important and much depends
on the application; both increasing and decreasing conformity could be desirable (for
the person or the group) depending on the situation (for example, avoiding groupthink
or rapidly building teams – or propaganda). Developing emotional enhancements will
depend on breakthroughs in neuropsychology and addressing the resulting ethical
dilemmas. Over past decades, despite massive effort, anti-depressive therapy has
progressed at only a modest pace.
72 Schulze, L., et al., (2011), Psychoneuroendocrinology, ‘Oxytocin increases recognition of masked
emotional faces’; Ditzen, B., et al., (2009), Biological Psychiatry, ‘Intranasal oxytocin increases positive
communication and reduces cortisol levels during couple conflict’; Kosfeld, M., et al., (2005), Nature,
Oxytocin increases trust in humans’; Arueti, M., et al., (2013), Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, ‘When two
become one: the role of oxytocin in interpersonal coordination and cooperation’; and Striepens, N., et al.,
( 2 011), Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, ‘Prosocial effects of oxytocin and clinical evidence for its therapeutic
potential’.
73 Savulescu, J. and Sandberg, A., (2008), Neuroethics, ‘Neuroenhancement of love and marriage: The
chemicals between us’.
74 Merrifield, C., (2014), University of Waterloo, ‘Toward a Model of Boredom: Investigating the
Psychophysiological, Cognitive, and Neural Correlates of Boredom’.
75 Bostrom, N. and Sandberg, A., (2009), Science and Engineering Ethics, ‘Cognitive Enhancement:
Methods, Ethics, Regulatory Challenges’.