Syntax
Supporting students to develop academic
language involves more than attending to vocabulary
development. High school students also need to gain
deeper understandings of syntax, or the way that
words are combined into phrases and sentences and
the way that sentences are structured and ordered to
convey particular meanings. Learning about syntax
helps students express complex ideas. By the end of
grade twelve the CA CCSS for ELA/Literacy expect
students to understand syntax and vary its use in
writing and speaking (W/WHST.11–12.1c; W.11–12.2c;
SL.11–12.4b). Students are expected to vary syntax
to link ideas, create cohesion, and clarify meaning;
they also vary syntax for purposes of style and effect.
Students learn to use various types of phrases (noun,
verb, adjectival, adverbial, participial, prepositional, and absolute) and clauses (independent,
dependent, noun, relative, adverbial) to convey specific meanings and add variety and interest to
writing and presentations (L.9–10.1b).
The effective use of phrases and clauses increases the information density of sentences, making
them more precise and nuanced, complex, and economical. Artful use of syntax is a sophisticated
skill—one that grows as the result of extensive exposure and analysis of well-written texts and
repeated meaningful practice in crafting effective sentences in the context of their writing. Students
gain exposure through wide reading of many types of texts that contain varied and rich sentence
structures. Speeches and debates also afford opportunities to hear well-crafted sentences. Students
learn about types of phrases and clauses when teachers draw their attention to how they are used to
convey meanings, which can range from informal comments to deeper analysis of sentence, clause,
and phrase structure. In turn, students can emulate the writing of mentor texts they have read and
analyzed and experiment with ways to incorporate these model approaches into their own writing.
Templates for structuring academic writing (Graff and
Birkenstein 2014) help students organize and express
their thinking and position their views and arguments in
connection with those of the author they are referencing.
These templates go beyond sentence frames by offering
varied sentence patterns for disagreeing with reasons,
agreeing and disagreeing simultaneously, entertaining
objections, and more. Another resource, “Rhetorical
Grammar for Expository Reading and Writing” (California
State University/Ching 2013), provides instruction
and practice with a range of syntax-related topics.
Examples include connecting independent clauses using
coordination, adding information and making logical
connections with adverbial clauses, combining sentences
using adjectival clauses, using participial modifiers,
connecting ideas using parallel structures, and more.
These activities focus on structures that students encounter in texts and employ in their writing.
Editing students’ own writing is central; ultimately students learn to edit their writing to create
Artful use of syntax is a
sophisticated skill—one that grows
as the result of extensive exposure
and analysis of well-written texts
and repeated meaningful practice
in crafting effective sentences
in the context of their writing.
Students gain exposure through
wide reading of many types of
texts that contain varied and rich
sentence structures.Supporting students to develop
academic language involves more
than attending to vocabulary
development. High school
students also need to gain deeper
understandings of syntax, or the
way that words are combined into
phrases and sentences and the
way that sentences are structured
and ordered to convey particular
meanings.684 | Chapter 7 Grades 9 to 12