Technique Description Utility- Distributed
practice
Implementing a schedule of practice that spreads out
study activities over timeHigh- Interleaved
practice
Implementing a schedule of practice that mixes different
kinds of problems, or a schedule of study that mixes
different kinds of material, within a single study sessionModerateSource
Dunlosky, John, Katherine A. Rawson, Elizabeth J. Marsh, Mitchell J. Nathan, and Daniel T. Willingham. 2013. “Improving
Students’ Learning with Effective Learning Techniques: Promising Directions from Cognitive and Educational
Psychology.” Psychological Science in the Public Interest 14 (1): 45.Techniques that were rated as high utility because they were generalizable across a range of
materials (e.g., vocabulary, lecture content, science definitions diagrams); learning conditions (e.g.,
amount of practice, reading vs. listening, incidental vs. intentional learning); student characteristics
(e.g., age, verbal ability, interests); and criterion tasks (e.g., cued recall, problem solving, essay
writing, classroom quizzes). See the study for the full list of variables. Some techniques, such as
summarization, represent standards that students are expected to learn. Although summarizing to-be-
learned-texts may not be effective as a study technique, summarizing for different purposes is an
important and valuable writing skill.
Engaging in Research
Opportunities to engage in research contribute to
students’ content knowledge. Teachers can use writing
instruction to provide opportunities for students to conduct
research to build and present knowledge (W.9–12,
Standards 7–9). Teachers can also engage students in
collaborative discussions about grade-level topics, texts, and
issues (including research conducted by students) (SL.9–
12.1). A brief overview of the CA CCSS for ELA/Literacy
regarding research to build and present knowledge follows.
Students left middle school able to conduct short research projects to answer a question (including
a self-generated question) (W.8.7); gather relevant information from multiple print and digital sources,
assess the credibility and accuracy of each source, and quote or paraphrase data and conclusions
of others while avoiding plagiarism and following a standard format for citation (W.8.8); and draw
evidence from literary or informational texts to support analysis, reflection, and research (W.8.9). In
high school, research projects expand and become more complex; contributing to students’ motivation
and engagement. For example, teachers provide students choices of topics and create opportunities
for students to interact with interesting texts and resources.
New to the grade span in terms of building content knowledge through engagement in research
are the following:
- In ELA and HST, conducting more sustained research projects to solve a problem, narrowing
or broadening the inquiry when appropriate, and synthesizing multiple sources on the subject
demonstrating understanding of the subject under investigation (W.9–12.7)
Opportunities to engage in
research contribute to students’
content knowledge. Teachers
can use writing instruction
to provide opportunities for
students to conduct research to
build and present knowledge.710 | Chapter 7 Grades 9 to 12