Recent research with ELs in kindergarten through grade twelve demonstrates the positive effects
of focusing on domain-specific and general academic vocabulary through rich instruction using
sophisticated texts (August, Carlo, Dressler, and Snow 2005; Calderón, and others 2005; Carlo, and
others 2004; Kieffer and Lesaux 2008; 2010; Silverman 2007; Snow, Lawrence, and White 2009;
Spycher 2009). Moreover, a panel convened by the U.S.
Department of Education’s Institute for Education Sciences
(IES) to develop a practice guide for teachers, Teaching
Academic Content and Literacy to English Learners in
Elementary and Middle School, recommends teaching “a set
of academic vocabulary words intensively across several days
using a variety of instructional activities” (Baker, and others
2014, 3). Three additional recommendations include integrating
oral and written English language instruction into content-area
teaching; offering regular, structured opportunities to develop
written language skills; and providing small-group instructional
intervention to students struggling in areas of literacy and
English language development.
Cognates are a rich linguistic resource for ELs, and teachers draw attention to cognates to ensure
that all students are aware of their power. Cognates are words in two or more languages that sound
and/or look the same or very nearly the same and that have similar or identical meanings. For
example, the word animal in English and the word animal in Spanish are clearly identifiable cognates
because they are spelled the same, sound nearly the same,
and have the same meaning. However, while some cognates
are easy to identify because of their similar or identical
spelling, others are not so transparent (e.g., gato/cat, estatua/
statue). In addition, some cognates appear infrequently in
one language or the other, or in both English and the primary
language, and are therefore unlikely to be known by younger
ELs (organísmo/organism). Because of the abundance of
words with Latin roots in English language arts, science, and
history texts, cognates are especially rich linguistic resources
to exploit for academic English language development for
Spanish-speaking ELs and other ELs whose primary languages
are derived from Latin. (Bravo, Hiebert, and Pearson 2005;
Carlo, and others 2004; Nagy, and others 1993). Teachers
help students develop awareness of cognates,and use
morphological clues to derive word meanings based on the
students’ primary languages. For example, teachers show
students that word endings for nouns and adjectives in Spanish have English counterparts (e.g.,
creatividad/creativity, furioso/furious).
Grammatical and Discourse-Level Understandings
While academic vocabulary is a critical aspect of academic English, it is only one part. Language
is a social process and a meaning-making system, and grammatical structures and vocabulary
interact to form registers that vary depending upon context and situation (Halliday and Matthiessen
2004). Furthermore, discourse structures or the organization of texts differ by discipline. Advanced
English proficiency hinges on the mastery of a set of academic registers used in academic settings
and texts that “construe multiple and complex meanings at all levels and in all subjects of schooling”
(Schleppegrell 2009, 1). Figure 2.14 presents the concept of register in more detail.
Recent research with ELs in
kindergarten through grade
twelve demonstrates the
positive effects of focusing on
domain-specific and general
academic vocabulary
through rich instruction using
sophisticated texts.Because of the abundance
of words with Latin roots
in English language arts,
science, and history texts,
cognates are especially
rich linguistic resources to
exploit for academic English
language development for
Spanish-speaking ELs and
other ELs whose primary
languages are derived from
Latin.82 | Chapter 2 Essential Considerations