150 Chapter 5may be reduced. As women become more
involved in sports, sex differences in spatial
skills could become smaller.
There is already some support for the role
of social learning theory in the development of
spatial skills. A meta-analysis revealed that ex-
perience with spatial activities is related to spa-
tial ability (Baenninger & Newcombe, 1989).
Thus one reason that men have superior spatial
skills compared to women might be that boys
are more likely than girls to be given toys that
require spatial abilities. For example, building
blocks, math toys, and sports all require spatial
skills, and these activities are encouraged more
in boys. The meta-analysis also showed that ex-
perimental studies of spatial training improved
spatial skills. Spatial training typically involved
repeated exposure to a spatial skills task or spe-
cific instructions on how to perform spatial
tasks. The effects of training were similar for
women and men, meaning women and men
were equally likely to benefit from spatial skills
training. This meta-analysis pointed a strong
finger at the role of the environment in sex dif-
ferences in spatial skills. Some researchers have
called for spatial instructions in the education
system because we know it is teachable and we
know it is linked to cognitive skills, including
math (Halpern & Collaer, 2005).Reinforcement
Reinforcement theory no doubt sparks im-
ages of Pavlov’s dog salivating at the bell, the
cue that signifies a reward is coming. With
respect to gender-role acquisition, the nature
of the bell is different for girls and boys. We
reward girls and boys for different behaviors,
and the consequences of a behavior deter-
mine whether the child performs it again. The
cartoon “Jump Start” (Figure 5.5) illustrates
how parents reinforce behavior. Imagine a
girl playing with a doll; a parent may smile,
play with her, or buy her another doll. Nowaggressive behavior a cognitively available
response to provocation. Thus, when faced
with a conflict, aggressive behavior may be
more likely because it is a learned response
and a response that is cognitively accessible.
The application of social learning theory
to sex-related differences suggests that as the
norms change and the role models of a cul-
ture (e.g., in the media) change, sex differences
also will change. Think of how the traditional
male gender role has been influenced by differ-
ent models. In the 1950s, a model of the male
gender role was John Wayne, a cowboy who
smoked cigarettes. It is unlikely this is the aspi-
ration of most young men today. In the 1970s,
the macho male gave way to sensitive and car-
ing images like those portrayed by Alan Alda in
M*A*S*Hand Michael Landon inLittle House
on the Prairie. In the 1980s, a model was De-
tective Sonny Crockett (played by Don John-
son) of the television showMiami Vice, whose
unshaven face became the decade’s symbol of
masculinity. Today, images of masculinity that
come to mind are the slightly chauvinistic phy-
sician Dr. House ofHouseand the macho mob
boss Tony Soprano ofThe Sopranos.
Social learning theory can explain why
some sex differences in cognition and behav-
ior have diminished over time. As nontradi-
tional roles for women and men have gained
increased acceptance, the models for female
and male roles have become more varied. A
longitudinal study of 10-year-olds showed
that those who were involved in counterste-
reotypical activities had less traditional at-
titudes toward gender and better grades in
subjects deemed more appropriate for the
other sex (e.g., math for girls) two years later
(McHale et al., 2004). These findings were
stronger for females than males, however. As
men become more involved in child care and
more models of men as parents appear, sex
differences in empathy and nurturance alsoM05_HELG0185_04_SE_C05.indd 150 6/21/11 8:03 AM