Sex-Related Comparisons: Theory 153instructions influenced men’s performance. To
the extent that women and men view a task as
one in which they are expected to excel, they
may respond in a way to confirm this expecta-
tion. Test this idea yourself in Do Gender 5.2.
Gender-role socialization may explain
sex-related differences in the expression of
emotion. Women’s concerns with relation-
ships may lead them to express emotions that
strengthen relationships and inhibit emotions
that could harm relationships (Timmers,
Fischer, & Manstead, 1998). Thus women
may express sadness to another person be-
cause they believe sharing such an experience
will increase the closeness of the relationship.
Women may be reluctant to express anger di-
rectly toward another person because of the
potential damage to the relationship. Men, by
contrast, are motivated to express emotions
that yield power and control and reluctant to
express emotions that suggest low power andhow gender-role socialization of males in our
culture contributes to aggression.
Gender-role socialization may not only
contribute to actual sex differences in behav-
ior but could also contribute to the appearance
of sex differences. The issue is one of response
bias. Women and men may distort their be-
havior in ways to make them appear more
consistent with traditional gender roles. This
may explain why sex differences in empathy
are larger for self-report measures than more
objective measures. However, evidence also ex-
ists for a response bias in spatial ability. When
the embedded figures test (a measure of spatial
ability) was described as measuring empathy,
feminine females performed better than mas-
culine females, as shown in Figure 5.6 (Massa,
Mayer, & Bohon, 2005). However, when the
task was described as a measure of spatial
skills, masculine females performed better than
feminine females. Neither gender role nor taskvideo games, and toys geared toward boys. Miedzian says, “He is learning to sacrifice his body un-
necessarily and to hide all feelings of fear and vulnerability, however warranted they may be. He is
also being taught to sacrifice the bodies of others” (p. 201).
The masculine mystique is more dangerous for lower-class than upper-class boys.
Upper-class boys are provided with legitimate pathways to validate their masculinity through
achievement; lower-class boys have more difficulty attaining achievement levels that will garner
dominance and respect. Black males, in particular, are denied legitimate opportunities to vali-
date their masculinity through achievement and economic success; thus Black men may resort to
other means. Staples (1995) argues that higher rates of violence in Black communities may stem
from “relative deprivation.” In fact, the highest rates of violence occur in communities where the
income gap between Blacks and Whites is largest.
An alternative way to view aggression from a gender-role perspective is to consider the
facets of the female gender role that might inhibit aggression, such as empathy and nurturance.
Empathy involves taking another person’s perspective and being able to experience vicariously
another person’s feelings. Caretaking of children is one way to promote both empathy and
nurturance, both of which could reduce aggression. Miedzian describes innovative programs
whereby girls and boys receive child care training in elementary school that extends through
high school as a way to reduce violence, delinquency, and teenage pregnancy. Some schools to-
day provide life skills training in middle school that includes child care. I find it interesting that
this is one lifetime duty for which neither women nor men are adequately prepared; women are
expected to know how to take care of and raise children (the maternal instinct), and men are
excused for not knowing how to do these things.M05_HELG0185_04_SE_C05.indd 153 6/21/11 8:03 AM