The Psychology of Gender 4th Edition

206 Chapter 6

are not independent, as performance expec-

tancies influence values. That is, how much

ability a child perceives she or he has in an

area affects how much value is attached to

the area (Denissen & Zarrett, 2007). Perfor-

mance expectancies and values influence the

decision one makes to engage in an activity,

the decision to persist in the activity, and

ultimately performance in the activity.

Performance expectancies and values

are influenced by gender-role socialization.

People in children’s environments—parents,

teachers, peers—influence females and males

to value different areas. Performance expec-

tancies and values also are shaped by the

experiences children have and by their inter-

pretations of those experiences. For example,

girls and boys might have the same math

grades but interpret them differently. If girls

believe their high grades are due to effort and

boys believe their high grades are due to in-

herent ability, boys will be more likely than

girls to believe they will succeed in math in

the future. It is theself-perceptionof ability

rather than the actual ability that predicts

whether students pursue a given domain.

Numerous studies have been conducted

in support of this theory. In general, males

perceive greater competence in math, science,

and team sports, whereas females perceive

greater competence in reading (Freedman-

Doan et al., 2000; Lupart, Cannon, & Telfer,

2004). The expectancy/value model predicts

participation in activities, course selection,

and occupational aspirations (Simpkins,

Davis-Kean, & Eccles, 2005, 2006). In one

study, females’ competence beliefs in math

predicted whether they enrolled in more

math courses the next year (Crombie et al.,

2005). Thus, males may be more likely than

females to pursue a career in math not be-

cause of differences in actual ability but

because of differences in “perceived” ability.

Social Factors

Despite the fact that girls either perform bet-

ter than or equal to boys in areas such as math,

girls rate their ability lower and have more neg-

ative attitudes toward math compared to boys.

What are the reasons for these discrepancies?

One answer concerns the beliefs that other

people hold about girls’ and boys’ abilities. De-

spite the small size of sex differences in most

intellectual domains (see Chapter 4), people

continue to believe that women and men have

different abilities. I begin this next section of

the chapter by describing the expectancy/value

model of sex differences in achievement. This

model rests heavily on gender-role socializa-

tion. Then I examine several sources of social

influence. First, I examine the role of parents

in influencing children’s beliefs about their

abilities; then I examine the role of teachers

in influencing children’s beliefs about their

abilities. Both parents and teachers may com-

municate to children that they have different

abilities and provide girls and boys with differ-

ent experiences.

Expectancy/Value Model of Achievement

If girls perform better than boys in math

and science at younger ages, why don’t more

women have careers in math and science?

This question puzzled Jacquelynne Eccles

and her colleagues, so they developed a the-

ory to account for the discrepancy between

men’s and women’s school performance

and career choices. Theirexpectancy/value

model of achievementsuggests that men’s

and women’s achievement-related choices

are a function of their performance expec-

tancies (Will I succeed?) and the value they

attach to the area (Is this important?; Do I

care about it?; Eccles et al., 1999). The two

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