256 Chapter 7making responses that encourage conversa-
tion. Men’s language is less facilitative of re-
lationships. Men interrupt others, challenge
others, disagree, ignore others’ comments by
delayed use of the minimal response or giv-
ing no response, and make declarations of
fact and opinion.
However, research has shown that it is
not clear whether women’s language is re-
lated to their lower status or to their gen-
der role’s greater emphasis on relationships.
Some aspects of women’s language are re-
lated to status and some are related to rela-
tionship maintenance. For example, hedges
and disclaimers may reflect women’s lower
status compared to men, but intensifiers
and verbal reinforcers may reflect women’s
socioemotional orientation. These ideas
were examined in a study of same-sex and
mixed-sex dyads’ discussions of a topic on
which the partners disagreed (Carli, 1990).
Women used more disclaimers and hedges
in mixed-sex than in same-sex dyads, which
suggests that status played a role in the be-
havior. However, women used more in-
tensifiers and verbal reinforcers compared
to men in same-sex dyads, which is the
kind of language that serves to maintain
relationships.Nonverbal Behavior. Many of the non-
verbal behaviors in which women engage
can be viewed as behaviors that promote and
foster good relationships. Smiling at others,
gazing at others, and standing close to oth-
ers can all be viewed as affiliative behavior. A
study of social interactions among groups of
college students showed that smiling was un-
related to each person’s status in the group
but was related to the likability of group
members (Cashdan, 1998).Emotion. Dominance and affiliation have
been shown to account for sex differences
in displays of emotion. Specifically, males’
greater displays of anger relative to females’
have been linked to dominance, and females’
greater displays of happiness relative to
males’ have been linked to affiliation (Hess,
Adams, & Kleck, 2005). When dominance
was manipulated in one of the studies, both
high-dominant females and males reacted
with anger to a vignette describing the de-
struction of someone’s personal property.
However, low-dominant men and women re-
acted differently—and in accord with gender-
role stereotypes—women with sadness and
men with anger.TAKE HOME POINTS
■ Social role theory states that the differences in men’s
and women’s communication styles have to do with
the different social roles men and women hold in our
society, the male role being agentic and the female role
being communal.
■ Men’s task behavior and women’s positive social be-
havior fit their social roles.
■ Some aspects of language fit men’s goal of gaining
control over the interaction (e.g., directives), and some
aspects fit women’s goal of encouraging communica-
tion (e.g., emotion language).
■ Social role theory is most helpful in explaining sex
differences in nonverbal behavior. Women’s smiling,
touching (in some contexts), decoding ability, and
expressions of emotions are all aimed at fostering
relationships.
■ Sex differences in emotion can be explained in part by
social roles and in part by status.M07_HELG0185_04_SE_C07.indd 256 6/21/11 8:11 AM