394 Chapter 11There has been a shift in cultural values
toward marriage over the last several decades.
Today, there is a greater emphasis on individ-
ual and personal fulfillment, which means peo-
ple may be less likely to tolerate unsatisfyingperson with whom to share one’s life. Today,
the minister or officiator is more likely to say,
“I now pronounce you husband and wife,”
reflecting the similarity of marriage for men
and women.SIDEBAR 11.1:ManipulationOf Social Support InThe Laboratory
Because survey studies on support and health cannot distinguish cause and effect, a number of
laboratory studies have been conducted in which social support is manipulated while the par-
ticipant undergoes some kind of stressor, such as giving a speech or performing a difficult math
task. Health is measured in terms of cardiovascular reactivity (e.g., change in blood pressure and
heartrate), immune function, or the production of stress hormones (e.g., cortisol). A meta-analytic
review ofthe literature showed that the experimental manipulation of support during a stressful
task performed in the laboratory had beneficial effects on heart rate, blood pressure, and cortisol
(Thorsteinsson & James, 1999). Most studies only involved female participants. One study that
examined both males and females found stronger effects of support on reactivity for females than
males (Smith, Ruiz, & Uchino, 2004).
The sex of the support provider also might influence how males and females respond. One
study manipulated the sex of the support provider and found that support provided by a female
confederate was effective in reducing blood pressure for both male and female participants, but
support from a male confederate was ineffective for both male and female participants (Glynn
et al., 1999). In fact, there was a slight tendency for male participants to show increased reactivity in
response to support from a male confederate. The difference between male and female confederates
is interesting, given that the support manipulation was standardized. Thus it is not only that women
may provide more support than men, but also that support from women may be more health ben-
eficial. The same behavior may be interpreted differently when displayed by a female than by a male.
The kind of support manipulated in the vast majority of these laboratory studies, including
the last one, is emotional support. Thus the extent to which other kinds of support may be effec-
tive in reducing reactivity to stress is unknown. It is also not known whether men and women
benefit from different kinds of support in terms of reduced reactivity to stress. Dawn Wilson and
her colleagues have examined both emotional support and instrumental support (e.g., advice,
concrete assistance) in several studies of African American adolescents. In a study that aimed
to enhance a low-sodium diet to prevent hypertension, Black boys did not benefit as much
from family emotional support as Black girls in terms of dietary compliance (Wilson & Ampey-
Thornhill, 2001). In a laboratory study in which Black boys and girls were asked to role-play sev-
eral stressful encounters, boys showed higher levels of reactivity when provided with emotional
support and lower reactivity in response to instrumental support (Wilson et al., 1999).
Thus the laboratory studies of social support leave several questions unanswered. Is sup-
port provided by women more effective than support provided by men, or does this pertain only
to emotional support? Do women and men benefit more from emotional support compared to
other kinds of support, or does the kind of support that is beneficial depend on the sex of the
support provider? For example, it may be that instrumental support from men is effective and
emotional support from women is effective.M11_HELG0185_04_SE_C11.indd 394 6/21/11 12:43 PM