Paid Worker Role and Health 443Whereas women’s labor force participa-
tion has increased since 1975, the participa-
tion rate for men has decreased. The reason
is unemployment. Historically, women had
higher unemployment rates than men, but
the recent economic turndown has led to a
greater increase in unemployment among
men than women (Galinsky et al., 2009). Men
are employed in industries that have suffered
the greatest job loss. In June of 2010, the un-
employment rates for White men and women
were 9% and 7%, respectively. The corre-
sponding figures for Black men and women
were higher—17% and 12%, respectively.
What is the effect of paid employ-
ment on men’s and women’s health? There
is reason to assume that both the differential
exposure and differential vulnerability hy-
potheses explain sex differences in the effects
of the paid worker role on health. Men are
more likely to possess this role than women,
especially if the paid worker role is limited
to those who are employed full time. To
the extent the paid worker role is associated
with good health, men are more likely than
women to reap the benefits. This is the dif-
ferential exposure hypothesis. As a society,
we attach greater importance to men work-
ing outside the home compared to women;
thus the effect of the paid worker role on
health may be stronger for men. This is the
differential vulnerability hypothesis.
Strong evidence suggests that the paid
worker role influences the health of both
women and men. As you will see next, paid
employment is generally associated with bet-
ter health for women and men. It is difficult to
compare the effects of the paid worker role on
women’s and men’s health because it is more
normative for men than women to work out-
side the home. When we compare men who
do and do not work outside the home, we are
typically studying the effect of unemploymentwomen and even more men maintain this
belief even today. The figures are somewhat
lower for younger people, suggesting that
there will be further change.
Over the course of the 20th century,
women made great progress in terms of edu-
cation and participation in the labor force. In
1970, 43% of women age 16 and over worked
outside the home, and in 2009, the rate was
59% (see Figure 12.2; U.S. Department of
Labor, 2010b). Among whites, the percentages
were 73% women versus 59% men; among
blacks, 65% versus 60%; and among Asians,
75% versus 58%. Both women and men may
work outside the home due to choice but also
due to economic necessity. There has been a
change in women’s desire to work outside the
home. A 2007 Gallup Poll showed that 50% of
women and 68% of men prefer to work out-
side the home (Saad, 2007a). In 1974, 36% of
women preferred to work outside the home,
which rose to 49% in 1978. Interestingly, this
number has not changed much but fluctuated
between 49% and 53% over the past 30 years!0102030405060701970
YearPercentage1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 20052009FIGURE 12.2 Percentage of women age 16 and
over who participate in the civilian labor force.
Source: Adapted from U.S. Department of Labor
(2010b).M12_HELG0185_04_SE_C12.indd 443 6/21/11 9:16 AM