Paid Worker Role and Health 451that is beneficial. One role may enhance the
effects of another role; for example, the par-
ent role may be adaptive only if we possess
the worker role. The worker role is critical
in the presence of children because financial
needs are greater. The parent role also ap-
pears to be beneficial to health only if one
possesses the spouse role, at least for women
(Fokkema, 2002; Khlat et al., 2000). A wealth
of evidence suggests that unmarried mothers
have the worst psychological and physical
health (Lahelma et al., 2002; Sachs-Ericsson &
Ciarlo, 2000). Unmarried mothers may feel
overwhelmed with raising children because
they lack the emotional and financial support
of a spouse.
Thus far, all fingers point to role en-
hancement. Is there any evidence for the
role scarcity hypothesis? There is, in terms
of exercise. Among employed persons, mar-
ried men and women exercise less than
those who are unmarried, and the effects are
stronger for men than women (Nomaguchi
& Bianchi, 2004). As shown in Figure 12.6,
marriage reduces exercise more for men than
women (a), as does the presence of children
(b). Simply examining whether more or
fewer roles are beneficial to women’s andused to buffer strains arising from another
role, which has been referred to as stress
buffering(recall Figure 11.3b).For example,
social support from coworkers may help al-
leviate distress arising from family problems.
Examples of the role scarcity and role expan-
sion hypotheses regarding employment and
family roles are shown in Figure 12.5.
What is the evidence for the scarcity
and expansion hypotheses? Are multiple
roles healthful or harmful? The preponder-
ance of evidence shows that multiple roles
are good for women’s and men’s health
(Barnett, 2004). A number of studies have
shown that the healthiest people, men or
women, are the ones who possess all three
roles: spouse, parent, and paid worker
(McMunn, Bartley, & Kuh, 2006). The most
distressed people possess none of these
roles. A longitudinal study of Swedish adults
supported the role expansion hypothesis by
showing that the greater number of roles
was associated with less physical illness,
and an increase in roles over an eight-year
period reduced the risk of health problems
(Nordenmark, 2004).
It may not be the mere accumulation of
roles but the particular combination of rolesRole Expansion
Family Role Provides Resources to Employee Role
Ex: Spouse gives me advice about how to solve problems at work
Employee Role Provides Resources to Family Role
Ex: Having a fulfilling job makes me a happier person at home
Role Scarcity
Family Roles Overburden Employee Roles
Ex: Taking care of children reduces the time I can spend at work
Employee Roles Overburden Family Roles
Ex: Working long hours means I miss some family activitiesFIGURE 12.5 Examples of Role Scarcity and Role Enhancement with
Respect to Employee and Family Roles.M12_HELG0185_04_SE_C12.indd 451 6/21/11 9:16 AM