470 Chapter 12students read applications from two females,
the labeling of one applicant as a parent
influenced perceptions of competence and
job commitment and allocation of salary
(Correll, Benard, & Paik, 2007). Mothers were
judged as less competent and less committed
than nonmothers, and salary recommenda-
tions were $11,000 less for mothers than non-
mothers. Whereas 84% of nonmothers were
recommended for hire, only 47% of mothers
were recommended for hire. The bias was
demonstrated for both White and African
American applicants and by both female and
male participants. Interestingly, fathers were
rated as more committed and given a higher
salary than men who were not fathers.
This pattern of findings is not limited
to vignette studies. Field experiments have
shown similar results. When fictitious job
applications were sent to employers with the
sex and parental status of the applicant ma-
nipulated, employers were more likely to call
women who were not mothers than mothers
for an interview and were more likely to call
fathers than men who were not fathers for an
interview (Correll et al., 2007). When retail
store employers were confronted with preg-
nant or nonpregnant female applicants, they
were equally likely to tell both applicantsmay have implications for the wage gap. Re-
call that female managers value communion
more than male managers and that higher-
level managers valued agentic characteristics
as more important to their jobs than man-
agers in lower-level positions (Frame et al.,
2010). A study of undergraduates revealed
that women value the implications of work
for family (i.e., accommodations for fam-
ily) more than men and that these values
are linked to the expectation to work fewer
hours and to the expectation of a lower sal-
ary (Lips & Lawson, 2009). By contrast, men
valued the status aspects of a job more than
women, and status values were related to the
expectations to work longer hours and to
have higher salaries.
Yet, even when the money lost from tak-
ing time off work is taken into consideration,
parenthood still has a negative effect on wom-
en’s salaries. Other effects of motherhood on
the pay gap are not so tangible. Motherhood
is conceived as a low-status characteristic,
meaning that it undermines perceptions of
women’s competence and commitment in
the workforce (Ridgeway & Correll, 2004). A
number of laboratory studies have shown the
negative effect motherhood has on percep-
tions of women’s competence. When college$375,000 in the first sex discrimination case associated with the act (Morse, 1999). Knussman re-
quested an extended leave because his wife had a complicated pregnancy and was not able to take
care of the baby. Knussman claimed his request was denied. In 1999, a second suit was filed by
David Roberts, a former South Carolina state trooper, who complained he was fired for request-
ing family leave to care for his newborn daughter (American Civil Liberties Union, 2000). He
requested family leave because his wife had not worked long enough to accrue paid leave and he
wanted to offer her the opportunity to advance in her position. His supervisor responded by tell-
ing him it was a mother’s duty to take care of the children. The sharp criticism he received from
his supervisors made him withdraw the request, but three months later, he was terminated. In
2003, the U.S. Supreme Court held that state government employees are protected by the FMLA
(American Civil Liberties Union, 2003).M12_HELG0185_04_SE_C12.indd 470 6/21/11 9:16 AM