The Psychology of Gender 4th Edition

Mental Health 537

of suicide victims reported that the adolescents

were more likely to have experienced problems

in romantic relationships, including breakups

(Brent et al., 1993).

TAKE HOME POINTS

■ Men commit suicide more than women. This sex dif-

ference appears across the life span and persists across

cultures.

■ Women attempt suicide more than men.

■ This gender paradox is partly explained by methodologi-

cal issues. Suicide in women may be underestimated

because women are more likely to use ambiguous

methods (e.g., overdose of pills) than men, which may

be misclassified as accidents. Men’s suicide attempts

may be underestimated because men are less likely

than women to admit to a failed suicide attempt.

■ Suicide in both women and men—adults and adoles-

cents—is likely to be associated with other mental

health problems, such as depression and substance

abuse.

■ Among adults, marital breakup and unemployment are

linked to suicide—especially in men.

■ Among both adolescents and adults, relationship diffi-

culties have been linked to suicide.

suggested that depression may be directly

linked to suicide in females but indirectly

linked to suicide in males through substance

abuse (Metha et al., 1998). However, the lit-

erature is not clear as to whether alcohol use

is more strongly linked to suicidal behavior

in males or females and whether antisocial

behavior is more strongly linked to suicidal

behavior in males or females. In one study,

investigators examined suicidal thinking in

a high-risk group: adolescents who had a

friend commit suicide in the prior six years.

Aggressive behavior predicted suicidal think-

ing among adolescent boys, and depression

predicted suicidal thinking among adoles-

cent girls (Prigerson & Slimack, 1999).

Social isolation and problematic social re-

lationships also play a role in adolescent suicide

(Langhinrichsen-Rohling et al., 2009). Lack of

support from and troubled relationships with

family and friends have been associated with

greater suicidal ideation and more frequent sui-

cide attempts (Wannan & Fombonne, 1998).

Suicide among adolescents has also been asso-

ciated with the breakup of romantic relation-

ships. In one study, investigators interviewed

family members of adolescents who had com-

mitted suicide to find out what kinds of life

events occurred in the prior year. Compared to

a control group of adolescents, family members

Summary

There is a consistent and pervasive sex

difference in depression in the United

States that extends to other cultures. Sex

differences in depression emerge during

adolescence and persist over the life span.

Sex differences in depression may be affected

by a response bias on the part of clinicians

and respondents; clinicians may be more

likely to recognize or interpret symptoms

as depression in women than in men, and

men may be more reluctant than women to

admit, report, or seek help for depression.

There are numerous theories of sex

differences in depression, tapping biological,

psychological, and social factors. Little

evidence indicates that genes can explain

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