sea change in official conservation policy
over the past 20 years as the Zambian
Wildlife Authority (ZAWA) moved from offi-
cially excluding rural people from conserva-
tion areas to officially including them as
both beneficiaries and managers in local
conservation efforts.^30 The Zambian Wildlife
Act of 1998 codified much of this shift. This
latest wildlife legislation not only created a
semi-autonomous Zambia Wildlife Authority,
but also legislated the move from protec-
tionist conservation to community-based
natural resource management. While com-
munities had in fact been part of wildlifeconservation in Zambia in an ad hoc way for
a long time, through programs like ADMADE
(Administrative Management Design) and
LIRDP/SLAMU (Luangwa Integrated Rural
Development Programme/ South Luangwa
Management Unit), the 1998 Act institution-
alised community-based conservation as a
management principle for all land designat-
ed as Game Management Areas (GMAs) in
Zambia.I would like to argue, however, that from
the start community-based conservation
(CBC) has been based strongly upon a
grammar of difference that draws upon the
construction of the “natural African.” This is
evident in an early prediction of what CBC
programs would supposedly be able toaccomplish.“Evidence of traditional values returning to
rural areas may be renewed story telling
and folklore about wildlife, especially by the
elders in the villages. Younger people may
seek the company of village scouts and
aspire to be scouts themselves — as much,
perhaps, as village hunters once were role
models. Animal products may reassume
medicinal or symbolic values. Should such
traditional attitudes and values return with
increased confidence and willingness among
residents to share their lands with wildlife,
the prospects for African conservation are
bright.”^31The excitement and sincerity that suffused
these early attempts at CBNRM is palpable;
while at the same time it carries with it bit-
ter echoes of the past. One
can almost hear the, “occa-
sional happy laugh” of “the
children of nature” as
described by Wilson^32 in
1964 in his description of
Zambians on the eve of inde-
pendence. These images
continue to draw upon ideas
about rural Africans that see
“them” as inseparable from
nature and stuck in history, a
perspective that denies any
sort of pre-colonial or colonial
historical perspective. Although (perhaps)
intended to emancipate, these notions have
achieved similar results to those held earlier
since a-historical and naturalised ideas
about Africans have consistently infantilised
“the other” in the minds of the more power-
ful. In the past these ideas have justified
slavery, colonialism and the exclusion of
Africans from protected areas. Today, they
continue to inform the paternalistic
approach of CBNRM in Zambia, denying
rural Zambians real control over the deci-
sion-making process.CBNRM in Zambia is based upon the poten-Conservation aas ccultural aand ppolitical ppractice
Figure 1.Zambian tourists look out over Victoria
Falls (Courtesy Brian Cohen).
Once tthe mmembers oof
the ccommunity
resource bboard aare
elected tthey aare
required tto ffollow aa
sustained ttraining
programme [[...] nno
comparable pprograms
exist ffor ddonors, tthe
safari iindustry oor
state aauthorities.