yet to make a comparable impact on com-
munity-based conservation, since conserva-
tion and development work for tribes in the
U.S. is dominated by tribal governments.
Furthermore, indigenous NGOs in the U.S.
are oriented primarily to tribal governments
and Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) fund-
ing.^22 This makes it difficult for them to
define or follow alternative agendas.^23 This
is unfortunate, because it makes it difficult
for diverse interests to influence protected
area management. This not only leads to
intractable problems like the current situa-
tion at Badlands, it also
makes it difficult for indi-
viduals outside tribal gov-
ernment to promote con-
servation initiatives based
on the values, needs, and
aspirations of local people.In considering the role of
indigenous NGOs in con-
servation, it is important
to note that they receive
much of their support
from international conser-
vation NGOs like theWorld
Wide Fund for Nature
(WWF) and the African
Wildlife Foundation (AWF).
They also receive technical support and
enhanced legitimacy from the World
Conservation Union (IUCN). It is imperative,
therefore, that these organisations learn
from the mistakes of colonial governments.
First, they should avoid sidestepping the
complexities of cultural debates surrounding
conservation at the local level by working
with a handful of ‘community representa-
tives.’ Second, they should remain aware of
the impacts of their own ideas and actions
on the nature and direction of these
debates. They should be especially mindful
of the possibility that the resources they
bring to a community might be empowering
some people at the expense of others.
Finally, they should acknowledge the waysin which historical encounters have shaped
local attitudes to the idea of conservation.Local Attitudes towards
Conservation
“We Eskimos would like to join the Sierra
Club.” Inuit Activist William Willoya advocat-
ing for the creation of a park that would
protect Inuit land rights (Catton, 1997: 195)“We have to be very careful about what we
say. Those conservationists are just waiting
for us to make a mistake.” Ernest House
Senior, Ute Mountain Ute Council Member,
speaking to a council meeting in July of
2002The question of local attitudes towards con-
servation is closely tied to the ways in
which local cultural values are shaped by
historical encounters with the global system.
Many western conservationists I have inter-
viewed have expressed bewilderment over
the negative attitudes of indigenous com-
munities towards conservation. They
describe local people as intractable and
ignorant, fundamentally incapable of seeing
the potential benefits of conservation. From
this perspective, negative local attitudes
towards conservation represent something
that needs to be changed, or at the very
least worked around. What this perspective
ignores, however, is that most people’s atti-
tudes reflect something about their experi-
ences. A more rational perspective on local
attitudes towards conservation would be to
begin with the assumption that different
attitudes reflect different experiences. For
indigenous people the word “conservation”
may have very different meanings and asso-
ciations than it does for people in the west- especially those who have dedicated their
lives to conservation and are emotionally
invested in the concept.
When I asked my informants in Tanzania if
the Maasai did conservation, they usually
responded, “Of course not, why would weConservation aas ccultural aand ppolitical ppractice
international cconser-
vation NNGOs sshould
not ssidestep tthe ccom-
plexities oof ccultural
debates
surrounding cconser-
vation aat tthe llocal
level [[...] aand bbe eespe-
cially mmindful oof tthe
possibility tthat tthe
resources tthey bbring
to aa ccommunity
might bbe eempowering
some ppeople aat tthe
expense oof oothers