evolved from the Twelfth Dynasty (1991–1783 B.C.E.)
mortuary formulas. The Coffin Texts were composed of
the PYRAMID TEXTS, which had been placed only in royal
tombs in the Fifth and Sixth Dynasties (2465–2150
B.C.E.), and they were used by all Egyptians. Such texts
had to be transferred to the coffins as the tombs became
smaller, no longer offering wall space for inscriptions.
See also TOMB TEXTS.
coinage Amonetary system was not in use in Egypt
until the New Kingdom (1550–1070 B.C.E.), possibly
brought into the Nile Valley by TUTHMOSIS III (r.
1479–1425 B.C.E.). No actual coins were minted in Egypt
until the Thirtieth Dynasty (380–343 B.C.E.), as foreign
monetary units were imported to serve the financial needs
before that time. Prior to the introduction of coins, Egyp-
tians relied on simple bartering, using copper, barley, or
other commodities of exchange. The debenwas a desig-
nated weight employed in such barters. By the reign of
Tuthmosis III, units of gold or silver were used to measure
monetary value. There were also metal tokens of fixed
weight used for barters, called shet, shena, shenat,or siniu.
During the Ptolemaic Period (304–30 B.C.E.), coins
from Greece were in use in Egypt, and the nation had a
sophisticated banking system. The Ptolemies established
public banking institutions in all of the major cities, with
smaller agencies serving the rural areas as well. The cen-
tral bank was in ALEXANDRIA, but agencies in other areas
collected government revenues and handled loans to
farmers and businessmen. Thousands of Egyptians were
reportedly employed by these banks in order to keep
them functioning in diverse regions.colors Often symbolic in nature, the various hues used
in ancient Egypt were derived from mineral and vegetable
sources. Colors lent a realistic, natural value in reliefs and
other forms of art. Artisans began to observe the natural
occurrence of colors in their surroundings and pulverized
various oxides and other materials to develop the hues
they desired.Colossi of Memnon Sandstone statues that are still
standing on the western shore of the Nile at THEBES, they
were once part of the mortuary complex of AMENHOTEP III
(r. 1391–1353 B.C.E.) of the Eighteenth Dynasty. The stat-
ues stand 65 feet high, including their bases, and depict
the ruler in a seated position, allowing his figure to domi-
nate the landscape. The Greeks, coming upon them in
later eras, decided the statues honored their hero, Mem-
non, who fought at Troy, and named them accordingly. In86 coinageCOLORS
Color Symbolism Source
White(hedj) Used to represent limestone, sandstone, silver, milk, fat, honey, Made from powdered
vegetables, teeth, bones, moonlight, some crowns. Symbolized limestone.
baboon (associated with THOTH), the crown of Upper Egypt, joy,
luxury, and white bread (in offerings to the dead).
Black(kem) Used to represent ebony, emmer wheat, cattle, hair, eyes, Nubians. Made from carbonized
In tombs used to represent mascara. Symbolized the Underworld, materials, such as burnt
the dead, OSIRIS, fertility (from the Nile mud), the HEART,ANUBIS, and wood and lampblack,
the IBIS. at times from manganese
oxide found in the Sinai.
Red(deshier) Used to represent male skin color, NATRON, fruits, myrrh, woods, Made from anhydritic
Blood-red(yenes) animals, blood, fire, the red crown of Lower Egypt, hair, baboons, iron oxide.
Blue-red(tjemes) foreigners, some clothing, and sometimes the dead. Anything bad
in the calendars or bad days were written in red at times. Symbolized
anger, rage, disorder, or brutality, or, on the contrary, positive aspects.
Blue(khesbed) Skin color of the solar gods, wigs and BEARDSof the gods, popular Made from powdered
in faience. azurite, lapis, or copper
carbonate.
Green(wadj) Associated with WADJET, the cobra goddess. Name (wadj)means healthy, Made from malachite.
flourishing, etc. Green represented the fertile fields, the respected Osiris.
Heart scarabs were made out of green nephrite. Green was popular color
for AMULETS.FAIENCEcould be either blue or green and was favored in
amulets. The “Eye” amulet was called the wadjet,“that which is healthy.”
Yellow(ketj) Represented vegetal matter, some foods, and skin color of females in Made from hydrated iron
some eras. Gold represented sunlight, the disc, the rays of the sun, oxide.
and metal.