Dra-abu’ el-Naga Theoldest section of the Theban
necropolis on the western shore of the Nile opposite the
New Kingdom (1550–1070 B.C.E.) capital, now modern
LUXOR, tombs dating to the Eleventh Dynasty (2134–
2040 B.C.E.) were discovered there.
The tombs found in the area included those of INY-
OTEF V, INYOTEF VI, INYOTEF VII, SOBEKEMZAF II, and
KAMOSE, all rulers of the Seventeenth Dynasty (1640–
1550 B.C.E.). Queen HENUTEMPET, a consort of Senakht-
enré TA’OI, was also buried there. Other royal women
interred in Dra-abu’ el-Naga are Queen Montuhotep, an
unknown consort, whose diadem was recovered at the
site, and Queen NUBKHAS(2), the consort of Sobekemzaf
I. The site is in a range of hills north of DEIR EL-BAHRI.
The ABBOTT PAPYRUSlists an inspection of the tombs there
in c. 1080 B.C.E. Some mortuary complexes in Dra-abu’
el-Naga have small pyramids.
Dream Stela A monument erected in the reign of
TANUTAMUN(664–657 B.C.E.) at GEBEL BARKAL, the stela
commemorates a dream experience by Tanutamun, a
member of the Twenty-fifth Dynasty, a Nubian royal line.
He dreamed of two serpents that allowed him to hold
them without striking. The serpents represented Upper
and Lower Egypt, the Two Kingdoms. Tanutamun moved
forward with confidence to punish evildoers who
opposed his reign, but he faced an implacable enemy in
ASSURBANIPAL, who entered Egypt with a large Assyrian
force.
dress These were the various styles of apparel used
throughout Egyptian history. As the warm climate of
Egypt dictated the agricultural seasons, so it influenced
the style of dress. There were seasons, and on some
evenings the temperature was cold because of the sur-
rounding deserts, but normally the climate remained con-
sistently warm and dry. In accordance with the
temperature, the Egyptians devised simple styles and
comfortable materials in which to dress from the earliest
eras. Cotton was a major crop put to good use, and linen,
especially the special material called BYSSUS,became the
basis for clothing for upper classes.
In the Predynastic Periods (before 3000 B.C.E.), both
men and women wore kilts, skirts that hung in simple
folds or were adorned with narrow belts made of rope,
fibers, and leathers. In time women wore an empire-type
long skirt that hung just below their uncovered breasts.
Menkept to the simple kilts. These could be dyed in
exotic colors or designs, although white was probably the
color used in religious rituals or by court elite.
In the Early Dynastic Period (2920–2575 B.C.E.),
both men and women wore their hair short, adorned with
various bands or flowers. Then the women of Memphis
began to appear in long cotton gowns with sleeves. Oth-
ers adopted the empire style with a band over the shoul-
ders. Men added simple cotton tops to their kilts when
the weather cooled. That style remained consistent
throughout the Old Kingdom (2575–2134 B.C.E.) and
Middle Kingdom (2040–1640 B.C.E.), although an extra
panel, sometimes goffered, sometimes stiffened, was
attached to the kilts for special occasions. Furs were used
in cold weather, and the Egyptians probably had capes
and shawls.
Wigs were used, and various types of head coverings
were worn to protect the hair or bare scalp from dust and
the heat of the sun. During the Old and Middle King-
doms, wigs were made of fiber or human hair and were
adapted for use by the upper classes. Such wigs were
often long, with great masses of hair pulled together in a
stiff design. In such instances beads were woven into the
hair at set intervals to form an intricate pattern.
Styles expanded with the coming of the New King-
dom (1550–1070 B.C.E.), as the Egyptians were exposed
to foreign elements. During that period, red girdles,
clearly visible under the sheer cotton fabrics, were con-
sidered stylish. Also popular were dresses with patterned
beadwork set into the material, and elaborate designs
made out of bits of shell and small stones that were
embroidered along the length of women’s gowns.
The capelet, made of sheer linen, was the fashion
innovation of the New Kingdom, a time in which men
wore kilts and sheer blouses with elaborately pleated
sleeves. Great panels of woven materials hung from the
waist, and intricate folds were visible under sheer over-
skirts.
VIZIERSkept to a simple skirt of white cotton, and
PRIESTSused white for all temple functions, placing ani-
mal skins or colored sashes and pectorals on their cos-
tumes to signify their rank and function. Priests wore
shaved heads, and some wore the lock of youth as part of
their insignia. This lock was also affected by the royal
princes, who shaved their heads but maintained a single
lock of hair on the side of the skull, normally entwined
with beads and bits of metal.
After the death of the last Ramesses, RAMESSES XI, in
1070 B.C.E., the nation became vulnerable to outside
influences. The Libyan, Nubian (modern Sudanese), Per-
sian, and Greek cultures advanced in the Nile Valley,
bringing about a change in styles. The 300-year Hell-
enization of Egypt during the Ptolemaic Period (304–30
B.C.E.) was actually confined to ALEXANDRIA, the Delta
capital. Even there the traditional pharaonic court styles
continued, as evidence of a link between the Greek con-
querors and the first rulers of the Nile. Throughout the
land the styles of clothing remained static because of the
demands of the climate and the inherent tendency of the
Egyptians to maintain traditions. Such dress codes faded,
of course, as the Romans and other cultures arrived in
the Nile Valley. Softer styles prevailed, and elaborate col-
lars and jewels were popular, as well as intricate wigs and
hairstyles.104 Dra-abu’ el-Naga