the northern domains but not the lands south of Abydos.
Called the KHETYSorthe Aktoys, their rule was unstable,
but some interesting documentation of their eras has sur-
vived. The “ELOQUENT PEASANT,” an individual named
KHUNIANUPU, was welcomed by one of the rulers of this
line, and THE INSTRUCTIONS FOR MERIKARÉdates to their
rule.
During the continuing battle against the rulers of
THEBES, the Eleventh Dynasty, the Herakleopolitan rulers
allowed an assault on a southern region by their allies in
ASSIUT. In this attack, tombs and corpses were vandalized,
an act of sacrilege that empowered a Theban, MON-
TUHOTEP II, and led to their ruin.
MIDDLE KINGDOM (2040–1640 B.C.E.)
Eleventh Dynasty (All Egypt 2040–1991 B.C.E.)
The royal lines of INYOTEFSin THEBES, having ruled only
Thebes for a time, mounted a new campaign to unify all
Egypt in the reign of Montuhotep II (2061–2010 B.C.E.).
He defeated the Herakleopolitans and campaigned
throughout the Nile Valley to suppress nomes and indi-
viduals who opposed his rule. He buried some 60 war-
riors, veterans of these military ventures, to honor their
sacrifice on behalf of the nation.
Montuhotep II regained lost land, penetrated into
NUBIAand the Sinai, and built extensively. He erected a
massive mortuary complex at DEIR EL-BAHRI, on the west-
ern shore of the Nile at Thebes, and this became a model
for later temples on the site.
His successors were not as successful in their reigns,
and the last ruler of this dynasty,MONTUHOTEP IV, was
succeeded by a usurper, AMENEMHET I, in 1991 B.C.E.
Twelfth Dynasty (1991–1783 B.C.E.)
Amenemhet I founded this royal line of rulers by usurp-
ing the throne, and he brought administrative and mili-
tary skills to the throne. His successors, the Amenemhets
and Senwosrets, were fierce warriors who defended Egypt
from Libyan invasions and built a series of fortresses to
protect the eastern and western borders, called the WALL
OF THE PRINCE. The FAIYUMwas refurbished and aided by
vast irrigation projects. FORTRESSESwere erected at key
military and trade centers in Nubia, with canals dug to
allow the passage of Egyptian vessels through the
cataracts of the Nile.
Amenemhet I was slain by a harem cabal, but his
son, SENWOSRET I, carried on his traditions. SENWOSRET III
was revered as the ultimate warrior. The Twelfth Dynasty,
along with the line of the Montuhoteps before them, was
honored in Egypt as the rulers of a Golden Age. Vast
pyramidal complexes, which included elaborate burial
sites for family members, were erected by these pharaohs
at DASHUR,HAWARA, el-LISHT, and el-LAHUN. The dynasty
closed with the brief rule of another woman, SOBEKNE-
FERU. She and AMENEMHET IVare believed to have erected
their tombs at MAZGHUNA, south of Dashur.
Thirteenth Dynasty (1784–after 1640? B.C.E.)
A royal line of briefly reigning pharaohs, lasting only
about a century and a half, this dynasty usurped the for-
mer capital of ITJ-TAW Y near the FAIYUM. Some of these
rulers are mentioned in the official lists, but they are
known only by fragmentary papyri, seals, or inscriptions.
They erected four pyramids, but the dynasty faced a
steady decline of power. Some Delta cities opted for inde-
pendence, and these rulers had to withdraw from these
eastern and Nubian territories. The HYKSOSwere already
in the Delta, amassing lands and consolidating their
influence.
Fourteenth Dynasty (1640? B.C.E.)
These rulers were located at XOISin the Delta and had lit-
tle impact on the rest of Egypt. They reigned for about 57
years and are relatively obscure.SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD
(1640–1550 B.C.E.)
Fifteenth Dynasty (1640–1532 B.C.E.)
This royal line is remembered as the Great HYKSOS, the
Asiatics who entered Egypt over the decades and built
AVARISin the Delta. They sacked Memphis and opened
Egypt’s borders to the east, welcoming Canaanites and
others. Fortified structures were erected by the Hyksos in
their domains, and certain Cretan influences are evident.
The Hyksos ruled Egypt as far south as CUSAE, blocked
there by the Seventeenth Dynasty at Thebes.
Several rulers are known by papyri and seals, and
one, APOPHIS, became famous because of his quarrel with
TA’O II, a ruler in Thebes. The Hyksos were attacked and
driven out of Egypt by the armies of ’AHMOSE, the founder
of the New Kingdom (1550–1070 B.C.E.), chasing them to
Saruhen and then into Syria.
Sixteenth Dynasty (Contemporaries of
the Fifteenth Dynasty)
This royal line served as vassals of the Great Hyksos and
were also Asiatics. Obscure because of their limited scope
of power, the rulers of this dynasty left no lasting monu-
ments. Three are known: SEKHAEN-RÉ, ANATHER, and
YAKOBA’AM.
Seventeenth Dynasty (1640–1550 B.C.E.)
Sekenenré TA’OII, one of the Theban rulers who had
maintained tense relations with the Hyksos, was a pivotal
figure in Egypt’s history. Like the Inyotefs and his father,
Senakhentenré TA’OI, before him, he was the master of
Upper Egypt and content to allow the Hyksos, the Asiat-
ics, to dominate the Delta. For decades the two groups
had lived side by side, keeping a relative calm on the
Nile.
APOPHIS, the ruler of the Hyksos capital at Avaris,
stepped over the bounds, however, by sending Ta’o II an
insulting message. Before Apophis could recant his words
or explain, the Thebans were gathered to oust the for-110 dynasty histories