achievements. The political and military gains made dur-
ing the reigns of these pharaohs were never equaled.
The Nubians south of the first cataract had
responded to the Hyksos’ offer of alliance and had threat-
ened Upper Egypt. ’Ahmose (r. 1550–1525 B.C.E.)sub-
dued Nubia and maintained new defenses along the Nile,
refurbishing the FORTRESSES started centuries before.
These fortresses were sustained by his successors, and
new bastions were added. With the expulsion of the Hyk-
sos and the subjugation of NUBIA, the Egyptians devel-
oped a consciousness of the nation’s destiny as the
greatest land on earth. The centuries of priests and sages
had assured the Egyptians of such a destiny, and now the
conquests were establishing such a future as a reality.
Tuthmosis I, the third ruler of the Eighteenth
Dynasty, carved Egypt’s empire out of the Near East, con-
quering Mediterranean lands all the way to the Euphrates
River. His grandson, TUTHMOSIS III(r. 1479–1425 B.C.E.),
called “the Napoleon of Egypt,” was the actual architect
of the empire. He recruited retaliatory military units and
established garrisons and administrative policies that
kept other potential powers away from Egypt’s holdings
and vassal states.
AKHENATEN (r. 1353–1335 B.C.E.) imperiled the
empire, as the ’Amarna Period correspondence illustrates.
HOREMHAB(r. 1319–1307 B.C.E.), however, began the
restoration and then named RAMESSES I(r. 1307–1306
B.C.E.) as his heir. Ramesses I’s son, SETI I(r. 1306–1290
B.C.E.), a trained general, and RAMESSES II (r. 1290–
1224 B.C.E.), called the Great, as well as MERENPTAH(r.
1224–1214 B.C.E.), all maintained the empire, stretching
for a long time from Khartoum in modern Sudan to the
Euphrates River. As the SEA PEOPLES destroyed the
Hittites and other cultures, Egypt remained secure. The
last imperial pharaoh was RAMESSES III (r. 1194–1163
B.C.E.) of the Twentieth Dynasty. After his death, the
Ramessid line collapsed slowly, and Egypt faced internal
divisions and the growing menace of merging military
powers.
In the Third Intermediate Period, SHOSHENQ I (r.
945–924 B.C.E.) conquered parts of Palestine once again,
but these city-states broke free or were overcome by other
empires. Egypt was invaded by the Syrians, Nubians, Per-
sians, and then by ALEXANDER[III]THE GREAT. The Ptole-
maic Period (304–30 B.C.E.) that followed ushered in a
new imperial period, but these gains were part of the
grand Hellenic scheme and did not provide the nation
with a true empire carved out by Egypt’s armies. The
Romans put an end to Egypt as an independent nation in
30 B.C.E.
Egyptian language See LANGUAGE.
Egyptian natural resources The natural materials
available to Egyptians in the Nile Valley and surrounding
regions provided a vast array of metals, gems, and stones
over the centuries. Nearby lands, easily controlled by
Egyptian forces, especially in the period of the empire,
held even greater resources, all of which were systemati-
cally mined or quarried by the various dynasties. These
resources included:Agatea variety of chalcedony (silicon dioxide), col-
ored in layers of red or brown, separated by grad-
uated shades of white to gray. Agate was plentiful
in Egypt from the earliest eras. It was called kaor
hedjand was found in the deserts with jasper.
Some agate was brought from PUNTand NUBIA
(modern Sudan).
Alabastera lustrous white or cream colored calcite
(calcium carbonate), called shésby the Egyptians.
Alabaster was quarried at HATNUBand at other
eastern Nile sites. The stone was used in jewelry
making and in the construction of sarcophagi in
tombs.
Amethysta translucent quartz (silicon dioxide) that
is found in various shades of violet. Called hes-
men,the stone was quarried at Wadi el-Hudi near
ASWANin the Middle Kingdom Period (2040–1640
B.C.E.) and at a site northwest of ABU SIMBEL.
Beryla translucent, transparent yellow-green stone
formed by aluminum-beryllium silicate. Called
wadj en bakh,the “green stone of the east,” beryl
was brought from the coast of the Red Sea during
the Late Period.
Carneliana translucent form of chalcedony that was
available in colors from red-brown to orange. The
stone was mined in the eastern and Nubian desert
and was called herset.Carnelian was highly prized
as rare and valuable and was used for heads,
amulets, and inlays.
Chalcedonya translucent bluish white type of quartz
(silicon dioxide) called herset hedji.Chalcedony
was mined in the easterndesert, the BAHARIA
OASIS, and the FAIYUM. Some chalcedony was also
found in Nubia and in the SINAI.
Coppera metal mined in the Wadi Maghara and in
the Serabit el-Khadim of the Sinai region. Called
hemt,copper was also found in meteorites and
was then called baa en pet.
Dioritea hard igneous rock, speckled black or white.
Found in ASWAN quarries, diorite was called
mentetand was highly prized.
Electrum a metal popular in the New Kingdom
Period (1550–1070 B.C.E.) although used in ear-
lier times. Electrum was a naturally occurring
combination of gold and silver. It was fashioned
into the war helmets of the pharaohs. It was called
tjam (tchem),or white gold, by the Egyptians; the
Greeks called it electrum. The metal was highly
prized, particularly because silver was scarce inEgyptian natural resources 127