mined the substance in the eastern deserts and at
Aswan and in the Sinai.
Jaspera quartz (silicon dioxide), available in green,
yellow, and mottled shades, called khenmetor
mekhenmet. Jasper was mined in the eastern
deserts. The stone normally formed ISISamulets
and was used from the earliest eras.
Limestonean opaque calcium carbonate with vari-
eties ranging from cream to yellow to pink to
black. Found in the Nile hills from modern Cairo
to ESNA, the stone was called hedjin the white
form. White limestone was quarried in the TUREH
area and was found as black in the eastern desert
and pink in the desert near EDFU.
Malachitean opaque, emerald green copper carbon-
ate found near the copper mines of Serabit el-
Khadim and the WADI MAGHARA in the Sinai.
Called shesmetor wadj,malachite was also found
in Nubia and in the eastern desert.
Marblea crystalline limestone quarried in the eastern
desert and used for statuary and stone vessels.
Marble was called ibhetyor behetby the Egyptians.
Micaa pearl-like potassium-aluminum silicate with
iron and magnesium. Mica can be fashioned into
thin sheets and was popular in the Middle King-
dom (2040–1640 B.C.E.). It was found in Nubia,
and was called pagtor irgeb.
Obsidiana translucent volcanic glass that was proba-
bly quarried in Ethiopia (PUNT) or Nubia. Called
menu kem when dark in color, obsidian was
used for amulets and scarabs and for the eyes of
statues.
Olivinea translucent magnesium iron silicate found
in many Egyptian regions. Called perdjem,olivine
was used for beads and decorations.
Onyxwith sardonyx, varieties of chalcedony, found
in the eastern desert and other Nile Valley sites.
Onyx beads were used in Predynastic Periods
(before 3000 B.C.E.) and became popular in the
Late Period (712–332 B.C.E.).
Peridota transparent green or yellow-green variety
of olivine that was probably brought into Egypt.
No mining sites are noted. Peridot was called perd-
jemor berget.
Porphyry an igneous rock formation of various
shades. The black variety was used in early eras,
and the purple variety was popular as amulets and
pendants.
Quartz a hard opaque silicon dioxide quarried in
Nubia and near Aswan. Called menu hedjor menu
kem,quartz was used for inlays, beads, and jew-
elry. Quartzite was found near HELIOPOLISand at
GEBEL EL-AHMAR.
Rock crystala hard, glasslike quartz of silicon diox-
ide found in the Nile Valley between the Faiyumand the BAHARIA OASISand in the Sinai region. It
was called menu hedj,when white.
Silvera rare and highly prized metal in Egypt, called
hedj,white gold. Silver was mined as electrum,
called tchamor tjamin the WADI ALAKI,WADI MIAH,
and in Nubia.
Steatite a magnesium silicate, called soapstone.
Steatite was found in the eastern desert from the
WADI HAMMAMAT to the WADI HALFA and in
Aswan. It was used extensively for scarabs and
beads.
Turquoisea stone treasured by the Egyptians, found
beside copper deposits in the Wadi Maghara and
Serabit el-Khadim in the Sinai. Called mefkat,
turquoise was used in all eras, with the green vari-
ety preferred.El-Bersha A site opposite MALLAWIin the area of Mid-
dle Egypt where Middle Kingdom (2040–1640 B.C.E.)
tombs were discovered. There are nomarch burials in the
area. Governors’ tombs were located in the necropolis at
modernSHEIK SAID, and nearby MEIRhas burial sites of El-
Bersha nomarchs as well.electrum A metallic material called tjam, or white
gold, and occurring as a natural combination of silver
and gold. Popular in the New Kingdom (1550–1070
B.C.E.) era, electrum was used for the war helmets of the
militarily active pharaohs. Silver was scarce in Egypt, so
this natural blend was highly prized.Elephantine (Abu, Yebu) An island at the northern
end of the first cataract of the Nile near ASWAN, called
Abuor Yebuby the ancient Egyptians, the island and that
part of Aswan served as the capital of the first nome of
Upper Egypt and the cult center of the god KHNUM. The
Elephantine Island was also revered as the source of the
spiritual Nile. One mile long and one-thirdof a mile
wide, Elephantine contained inscriptions dating to the
Old Kingdom (2575–2134 B.C.E.). DJOSER(r. 2630–2611
B.C.E.) of the Third Dynasty visited the shrine of Khnum
to put an end to seven years of famine in Egypt. His visit
was commemorated in a Ptolemaic Period (304–30
B.C.E.) stela, the famed FAMINE STELAat SEHEL. The temple
personnel of PHILAEalso claimed that Djoser gave them
the island for their cult center.
ANILOMETERwas placed on the Elephantine Island,
as others were established in the southern territories and
in the Delta. Ruins from a Twelfth Dynasty (1991–1783
B.C.E.) structure and others from the Eighteenth Dynasty
(1550–1307 B.C.E.) were discovered on the island. When
’AHMOSE of the Eighteenth Dynasty established the
viceroyalty of NUBIA, the administrative offices of the
agency were located on the Elephantine Island. Similar
officials, given other names in various eras, had served in130 El-Bersha