providing them with a certain exuberance for life,
unmatched anywhere in the ancient world.
Euclid(fl. third century B.C.E.) “Father of Mathematics”
Euclid was an Alexandrian scholar who served in the
reign of PTOLEMY I SOTER(304–284 B.C.E.). He is best
known for his Elements of Geometry,which he presented
to Ptolemy. When the ruler declared that the work was
too long and too difficult, Euclid stated that the pharaohs
had “royal roads” in Egypt but that geometry could not
be reached with speed or ease. Euclid systematized the
entire body of mathematics, developing axiomatic proofs.
He founded mathematical schools in ALEXANDRIAand was
esteemed internationally.
Eurydice(fl. third century B.C.E.)Royal woman of the
Ptolemaic Period
She was the consort of PTOLEMY I SOTER(r. 304–284
B.C.E.) and the daughter of King Antipater of Macedonia.
In her retinue, however, was a woman named BERENICE
(1), reportedly a half sister of Ptolemy I. He set Eurydice
aside and disinherited her children, Ptolemy Ceraunus,
Ptolemais, Lysander, and Meleager, in favor of Bere-
nice (1)’s offspring.
execration This was the ritualized destruction of
objects or depictions of individuals, especially in Egyp-
tian tombs or MORTUARY TEMPLESand cultic shrines. By
demolishing or damaging such depictions or texts, the
power of the deceased portrayed was diminished or
destroyed. There are many surviving examples of execra-
tion in tombs, especially in the New Kingdom Period
(1550–1070 B.C.E.). The images of Queen-Pharaoh HAT-
SHEPSUT(r. 1473–1458 B.C.E.) were destroyed or vandal-
ized at DEIR EL-BAHRIand in other shrines. The entire
capital of AKHENATEN(r. 1353–1335 B.C.E.) was razed.
The tomb of AYA(2) (1323–1319 B.C.E.) was savaged. The
deceased’s power in the afterlife was traditionally thought
tobe destroyed by such vandalism.
Execration texts were inscribed as well on pottery or
figurines and listed cities and individuals in Palestine and
southern Syria as enemies. Some 1,000 execration texts
survive, dating from the Old Kingdom (2575–2134
B.C.E.) to CLEOPATRA VII(r. 51–30 B.C.E.). One discovered
dates to c. 1900 B.C.E. and curses Askalon, Rehab, and
Jerusalem. Two other such texts, made perhaps a century
later, curse the cities of Acshaf, Acre, Ashtaroth, Hazor,
Íyon, Laish, Mishal, Qanah, Qederesh, and Jerusalem.exemption decrees Documents used in various eras
of ancient Egypt to exempt designated temple complexes
from taxes, CORVÉElabor, and other civic responsibilities,
the most famous of these decrees were issued in KOPTOS.extradition A clause included in the HITTITE ALLIANCE
between RAMESSES II(r. 1290–1224 B.C.E.) of the Nine-
teenth Dynasty and the HITTITES, it provided that persons
of rank or importance would be returned to their own
rulers if they tried to flee from one territory to the other
to escape punishment for their crimes. This clause,
sophisticated and remarkably advanced for this period,
exemplified the complex judicial aspects of Egyptian law
in that period.Eye of Horus See HORUS EYE.Eye of Ré This was a complex tradition concerning the
eye of he sun deity, viewed as a physical component of
the god and functioning as well as a separate spiritual
entity. The goddess ISIS, along with HATHORand SEKHMET,
were associated with this tradition, and the cobra, WAD-
JET, was also part of the symbolism. AMULETSand other
mystical ornaments employed the eye of Ré as a powerful
insignia of protection.134 Euclid