an excellent training ground for the young princes of
each dynasty as it was designed to further the desires of
the gods and the wishes of the pharaohs. Tax records,
storehouse receipts, crop assessments, and a census of the
human inhabitants of the Nile Valley were constantly
updated in the vizier’s office by a small army of scribes.
These scribes aided the vizier in his secondary role in
some periods, that of the official mayor of THEBES. In the
New Kingdom the mayor of Thebes’s western side, nor-
mally the necropolis area, served as an aide, maintaining
the burial sites on that side of the Nile. The viziers of
both Upper and Lower Egypt saw the ruler each day or
communicated with him on a daily basis. Both served as
the chief justices of the Egyptian courts, giving all deci-
sions in keeping with the traditional judgments and
penalties.
The royal treasurer, normally called the treasurer of
the god, had two assistants, one each for Upper and
Lower Egypt. In most ages this official was also the
keeper of the seal, although that position was sometimes
given to the chancellor. The treasurer presided over the
religious and temporal economic affairs of the nation. He
was responsible for mines, quarries, and national shrines.
He paid workers on all royal estates and served as the
paymaster for both the Egyptian army and navy. The
chancellor of Egypt, sometimes called the keeper of the
seal, was assisted by other officials and maintained
administrative staffs for the operation of the capital and
royal projects. The judicial system and the priesthood
served as counterbalances to the royal officials and
insured representation of one and all in most dynastic
periods.
In the Eighteenth Dynasty, ’AHMOSE(r. 1550–1525
B.C.E.) established the viceroyalty of NUBIA (modern
Sudan), an office bearing the title of “King’s son of Kush.”
Many officials previous dynasties had served in the same
capacity at the ELEPHANTINE Island at ASWAN, but
’Ahmose made it a high-level rank. This officer controlled
the affairs of the lands below the CATARACTSof the Nile,
which extended in some eras hundreds of miles to the
south. Certain governors of the northlands were then
appointed during the New Kingdom Period in order to
maintain control of Asiatic lands under Egypt’s control as
well as the eastern and western borders. Some officials
served also as resident governors of occupied territories,
risking the loss of their lives when caught in rebellions by
the conquered state.
The government of ancient Egypt was totally depen-
dent upon the competence and goodwill of thousands of
officials. The rulers of each age appear to have been able
to inspire capable, decent men to come to the aid of the
nation and to serve in various capacities with dedication
and with a keen sense of responsibility. Some families
involved in various levels of government agencies, such
as the AMENEMOPETclan, served generation after genera-
tion. During certain ages, particularly in the waning years
of the Ramessids of the Twentieth Dynasty (1196–1070
B.C.E.), officials became self-serving and corrupt. Such
behavior had serious consequences for Egypt.
During the Third Intermediate Period (1070–712
B.C.E.), the government of Egypt was divided between the
royal court and the religious leaders at Thebes. Women
were given unique roles in Thebes, in the office of GOD’S
WIFE OF AMUN, or the Divine Adoratrices of Amun, or the
power of the religious leaders. This office became part of
the political rivalry of competing dynasties in the eras of
divinity. PIANKHI (r. 750–712 B.C.E.) marched out of
Nubia to conquer Egypt in order to put an end to such
fractured government and to restore unity in the older
traditions.
The Twenty-sixth Dynasty (664–525 B.C.E.) tried to
restore the standards of government in Egypt but was
faced with the Persians led by CAMBYSES (r. 525–522
B.C.E.). The Persians placed Egypt under the control of
a satrap, and the traditions were subject to the demands
of the conquerors. The Twenty-eighth Dynasty (404–
393 B.C.E.) and the longer-lived Twenty-ninth (393–
380 B.C.E.) and Thirtieth (380–343 B.C.E.) Dynasties
attempted to revive the old ways. The Persians returned
in 343 B.C.E., only to be ousted by ALEXANDER III THE
GREATin 332 B.C.E.
The Ptolemaic Period (304–30 B.C.E.) restored the
government of Egypt, bringing Hellenic concepts to the
older forms and centralizing many aspects of rule. The
internal feuds of the Ptolemies, and their refusal to accept
Egyptians in their court or in their royal families, led to
an isolation that made these rulers somewhat distant and
alien to the average people on the Nile. Also, the laws
were not the same for native Egyptians and the Greeks
residing in the Nile Valley. The old ways, including the
unabashed dedication of entire families to government
service, were strained if not obliterated by the new politi-
cal realities. The suicide of CLEOPATRA VIIin 30 B.C.E. put
an end to the traditional Egyptian government for all
time, as the nation became a territory of Rome.Governors of the Northlands Officials of the New
Kingdom Period (1550–1070 B.C.E.) governed three
provinces of the eastern territories beyond the nation’s
border regions and quite possibly some western border
regions as well. The scope of Egypt’s empire was vast,
ranging from just north of Khartoum in modern Sudan to
the Euphrates River. These officials had prominent roles
during the era of Egypt’s empire.
See also EGYPTIAN EMPIRE.Granicus This was the site of the victory of ALEXANDER
III THE GREAT(r. 332–323 B.C.E.) over the Persians. In
Asia Minor, the river Granicus was the battleground
between Alexander’s army of a reported 32,000 infantry
and 5,100 cavalry troops, and the forces of DARIUS III154 Governors of the Northlands