last part of the Old Kingdom and the First Intermediate
Period, the Nubians had built a relatively strong state in
the area. SENWOSRET III completed the pacification of
Kush and established the southern borders of Egypt as far
south as Semna and URONARTI.
The military gear of the Middle Kingdom was much
the same as that of the Old Kingdom, although troops
now carried axes and copper blades, bound to wooden
hafts with leather thongs. A long bronze spear became
popular, and the soldiers wore leather shirts and kilts.
THE SECOND
INTERMEDIATE PERIODThere was warfare throughout much of Egypt during the
period following the collapse of the Middle Kingdom in
1640 B.C.E. Asiatics began to consolidate their holdings,
after having penetrated Egypt and established their own
domains. The HYKSOS, as these Asiatics were called, intro-
duced horses into the Nile Valley, using the animals to
pull chariots and to carry loads. The horses of that era
were not actually heavy enough to carry the weight of a
man for long distances, something that the Egyptians
remedied rather quickly.
After a brief period of tolerance, the Thebans began
to assault the southern outposts of the Hyksos, as Seke-
nenre’-TA’OII(r. c. 1560 B.C.E.) began a full-scale war to
oust the aliens from the Nile. When he died, his son
KAMOSEtook the field in his place. Under his command
the Egyptians fielded cavalry units, having lightened the
Hyksos chariot and also having trained special units for
such tactics. He also commanded an unusual fighting
force, called the MEDJAY, a group of Nubians who had
allied themselves with Egypt’s cause. The Medjay served
as scouts for the main units and then as light infantry.
Kamose used the LIBYAN DESERToases as effective hiding
places in his assaults on the Hyksos, and he was within
striking distance of AVARIS, the Hyksos capital, when he
died or was slain in battle.
THE NEW KINGDOM’AHMOSE(r. 1550–1525 B.C.E.), his younger brother, took
up the cause and surrounded Avaris, using both land and
sea forces. The Hyksos were forced to withdraw from
Egypt, and the New Kingdom began. Egypt’s army was no
longer a confederation of nome levies but a first-class
military force. The ruler was the commander in chief, but
the vizier and another administrative series of units han-
dled the logistical and reserve affairs. Apparently the
senior officers of the army could debate campaign events
with the ruler while on tours, and others were consulted
for their experience.
The army was organized into divisions in the New
Kingdom, both chariot forces and infantry. Each division
numbered approximately 5,000 men. These divisions car-
ried the names of the principal deities of the nation.
When Egypt was not at war, the army served as a reserve
force, stationed in both Upper and Lower Egypt.
The chariot force was divided into squadrons of 25
men each, and the infantry contained two types of sol-
diers, the veterans and the conscripts of the campaign.
The kings had their own elite corps, serving as body-
guards and special shock troops. There were alien merce-
nary units in the army in this period as well. Some, like
the SHERDEN PIRATES, were pressed into service after cap-
ture, and others, like the Libyans and Nubians, were
long-established units of mercenaries. A definite officer
corps existed, with the lowest grade commanding 50 men
and the highest, led by the “standard-bearers,” in charge
of as many as 250 men. The troop commander was in
charge of several brigades or commanded entire
fortresses. Above this level were the various administra-
tive officer staffs. In many instances the princes of Egypt
led units into action, as in the case of two of Ramesses II’s
sons, who went to war in Nubia while still lads.
Pack animals were used for the various supplies, but
boats were important in this period as well. A great naval
station was located at PERU-NEFER, near Memphis. AMEN-
HOTEPII, the son of TUTHMOSISIII(r. 1479–1425 B.C.E.),
commanded that depot and a shipbuilding site while still
a prince. Ox-drawn carts were also used in the field.
The pharaohs of the New Kingdom started with the
war against the Hyksos and continued campaigns
throughout that period. ’Ahmose’s successor, AMENHOTEP
I, maintained the military structures, but it was TUTHMO-
SIS I(r. 1504–1492 B.C.E.) who took the armies of Egypt
to the Euphrates River and began the empire. His grand-
son, Tuthmosis III, fought at AR-MEGIDDOand then con-
ducted 20 more campaigns in order to put down
rebellions among the occupied or vassal states of the
Mediterranean region. Tuthmosis III also took hostages
from the royal families of conquered states and cities and
trained them in Egypt so that they were ready to rule in
their own time as allies.
In NUBIA, meanwhile, tribes had risen again, and
’Ahmose I and his successors had to campaign there.
Under Tuthmosis I the Egyptian fleet made its way south
and established a fort at Tombos, which enabled the
Egyptians to assault the regions easily. Tuthmosis I went
as far as the fourth cataract. When he withdrew to Egypt,
the body of the king of the warring tribe hung upside
down on the prow of his ship. The interest in Nubia was
mostly economic, and Egypt did little to respect the ways
of the Nubians.
HOREMHAB, the last ruler of the Eighteenth Dynasty
(1319–1307 B.C.E.) was a trained military commander. He
conducted campaigns to maintain the empire, which had
diminished during the ’AMARNAPeriod and with the fall
of the MITANNIS, Egypt’s allies. Before he died he placed
RAMESSES Ion the throne, a military comrade in arms, and
the Ramessids began their military exploits.
The Ramessids, experts in campaigns and enthusias-
tic about the empire, warred constantly to maintain a bal-
ance of power. They faced the mighty HITTITES, and in the246 military