Athyr
KhoiakSeason of proyetor peret—the sowing—spring
Tybi (or Tobe)
Mekhir
Pnamenoth
ParmuthiSeason of shemuor shomu—the harvest—summer
Pakhons
Paoni
Epep
MesoreThe use of only 30 days in each month caused a
gradual alteration between the true rotation of the earth
and the seasons based on lunar calculation. The Egyp-
tians attempted to remedy that situation by adding
EPAGOMENAL DAYSat the end of the year.
Montu (Mont) He was a war deity dating to the Mid-
dle Kingdom (2040–1640 B.C.E.). The pharaohs of the
Eleventh Dynasty (2040–1991 B.C.E.) were particularly
dedicated to this god. Montu originated in THEBESand
had two consorts, Tjenenyet and Ra’ttawy. He was nor-
mally depicted as a man with a hawk’s head, adorned
with plumes and a sun disk. The BUCHISbulls were wor-
shiped as theophanies of Montu. In the New Kingdom
(1550–1070 B.C.E.), Montu was associated with the god
RÉand was addressed as Montu-Ré. The deity was origi-
nally part of the cult of HORUSat Thebes.
Montuhirkhopshef (1)(fl. 15th century B.C.E.)Royal
official of the Eighteenth Dynasty famous for his tomb
He served TUTHMOSIS III(r. 1479–1425 B.C.E.) and was a
noble with ranks and titles. He was also related to the
royal family. Montuhirkhopshef’s tomb is famous at
Thebes. The site contains a relief depicting the mortuary
object called a TEKENU.
Montuhirkhopshef (2)(fl. 12th century B.C.E.)Prince
of the Twentieth Dynasty
He was the son of RAMESSES III(r. 1194–1163 B.C.E.) but
not the heir to the throne. His wife was probably TAKHAT
(2), who was buried in the tomb of AMENMESSES. Mon-
tuhirkhopshef may have been the father of RAMESSES IX(r.
1131–1112 B.C.E.). He was buried in Thebes, and his
tomb in the VALLEY OF THE QUEENSdepicts him making
offerings.
Montuhirkhopshef (3)(fl. 12th century B.C.E.)Prince
of the Twentieth Dynasty
He was the son of RAMESSES IX(r. 1131–1112 B.C.E.) and
probably Queen BAKETWEREL, but he was not the heir to
the throne. Montuhirkhopshef was buried in the reign of
RAMESSES Xin a beautiful tomb containing his portraits.Montuhotep(fl. 20th century B.C.E.) Military official of
the Twelfth Dynasty
Serving SENWOSRET I(r. 1971–1926 B.C.E.) as a general of
the armies, Montuhotep led the Egyptian forces into
NUBIA(modern Sudan), and there he erected a stela at
WADI HALFA to commemorate the expedition. It is
believed that Montuhotep penetrated deeply into the
area, seeking auspicious sites for forts and garrisoned
TRADEcenters and for stations in which the Egyptians
could control Nubian traffic on the Nile. The next
dynasty would promote the trade efforts of Montuhotep.Montuhotep I (d. c. 2134 B.C.E.) Ruler of Thebes of the
Eleventh Dynasty
He ruled Thebes from an unknown date until his death,
in the era before Upper and Lower Egypt were unified.
Montuhotep I was listed on tomb fragments found in
GEBELEINand is recorded in the TURIN CANON. His con-
sort was SIT-SHERYET, probably the mother of the heir, INY-
OTEF I(r. 2134–2118 B.C.E.), and documents from the
period depict him as “the Son of HATHOR,” the slayer of
Nubians, Asiatics, and Libyans. Montuhotep, as the heir
of a Theban nomarchy, proclaimed pharaonic powers for
himself and his line and established the patterns for
reunification of Egypt, under MONTUHOTEP II.Montuhotep II (Nebhepetré) (d. 2010 B.C.E.)Fourth
ruler of the Eleventh Dynasty and the unifier of Upper and
Lower Egypt
Montuhotep was the son of INYOTEF IIIand Queen AOH,
also called Yah. Assuming power in THEBESin 2061 B.C.E.,
he began the process of restoring Egypt after the chaotic
First Intermediate Period (2134–2040 B.C.E.) and
attacked the KHETYrulers and their allies. In 2040 B.C.E.,
Montuhotep II’s armies took the cities of ASSIUTand HIER-
AKONPOLIS, putting an end to the Ninth and Tenth Dynas-
ties and the First Intermediate Period.
He even led a force to DAKHLAOasis in the LIBYAN
DESERTto slay enemies seeking sanctuary there. This vic-
tory not only established the Eleventh Dynasty from
Thebes as the rulers of a united Egypt but also ushered in
the Middle Kingdom (2040–1640 B.C.E.). Montuhotep
consolidated Egypt’s borders, fought the Libyans who had
infiltrated the Delta, and campaigned against the Asiatics
in the SINAI.
He is also recorded as having conducted expeditions
in NUBIA(modern sudan), where he levied tributes and
promoted exploration of the area’s natural resources,
including mines and quarries. Montuhotep II had
Nubians and Libyans in his army, using their expertise
and knowledge of the terrains involved in the various
campaigns. His assault on Nubia started at ABU SIMBEL,250 Montu