for mortuary statues and the mummified remains of ani-
mals deemed as theophanies or symbols associated with
the particular god. Only high-ranking priests of the cults
could enter these sacred precincts.
Napata This is a site below the third cataract of the
Nile, in modern Dongola, in the Sudan, where the river
makes dramatic loops in its progress. Napata is the site of
a spectacular flat-topped mountain, called “the Holy
Mount” or “the Table of Amun.”
See also GEBEL BARKAL.
Narmer(fl. c. 3000 B.C.E.) One of the last Predynastic
rulers associated with the unification of Upper and Lower
Egypt
Narmer is believed to have come from HIERAKONPOLIS,a
capital and shrine city of the god HORUSin the Predynas-
tic Periods of Egypt. He followed in the footstep of SCOR-
PION and others who tried to subdue the Delta. The
actual unification of Egypt was not accomplished until
sometime around the close of the Second Dynasty (c.
2640).
A PALETTE discovered at Hierakonpolis depicts
Narmer’s efforts. A ceremonial MACEHEAD, also discovered
in that city, depicts Narmer as capturing 120,000 men,
400 oxen, 1,422,000 goats, and the standards of the Delta
nomes. After this victory, Narmer is believed to have mar-
ried a Memphite female aristocrat in order to consolidate
his gains. Queen NEITHOTEP was possibly that noble
heiress. She is named in some lists as the mother of AHA
(called Menes), the first ruler.
Narmer sent an expedition into the eastern desert,
and his inscription was discovered on the rocks of WADI
QASH, on the KOPTOS TRADE route. He was probably
buried in SAQQARAor in the necropolis at TARKHAN. A
CENOTAPHbearing his insignia was discovered in ABYDOS.
See also EGYPT.
Narmer macehead A symbolic weapon, dating to the
unification of Egypt, c. 3000 B.C.E., and signifying victory
and power, the macehead of Narmer was found in HIER-
AKONPOLISand now is in the Ashmolean Museum at
Oxford. The Narmer macehead was probably used by the
unifier of Upper and Lower Egypt in celebrations of the
heb-sedceremonies, the anniversary rituals popular in all
historical eras as part of the state royal cults. Narmer is
depicted in a tight cloak, wearing the red crown of Lower
Egypt, a symbol of military victory over the northern ter-
ritories. A woman, possibly NEITHOTEP, is shown being
brought to Narmer in a palanquin as a tribute of the con-
quered Delta.
Narmer palette A ceremonial vessel, also called
Narmer’s Victory Palette, that was discovered in HIER-
AKONPOLIS, the palette was designed for ceremonial use
or for grinding antinomy, the popular cosmetic. Narmer
is depicted wearing the war CROWNof Upper Egypt and
the red wicker crown of Lower Egypt on this palette, sig-
nifying that he had conquered the territory in the north.
Narmer is also shown as a BULL(a royal symbol), destroy-
ing a city with his horns and trampling the enemy troops
under his hooves.
On the reverse side of the palette two fallen figures
lie before him, probably representing the cities of SAISand
MEMPHIS. The god HORUSis shown coming to the king’s
aid by bringing prisoners to him. The palette, made of
schist, is an important historical and artistic text and is
now in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford.
See also ART AND ARCHITECTURE.Narmouthis (Narmonthis, Medinet Wadi) This is
a site on the southern edge of the FAIYUM, now modern
Medinet Wadi. A temple dating to the Twelfth Dynasty
was discovered at Narmouthis, erected in honor of the
deities SOBEK and RENENUTET by AMENEMHET III (r.
1844–1797 B.C.E.). The temple is rectangular and con-
tains HYPOSTYLE HALLSand papyrus COLUMNS, as well as a
sanctuary with three chapels and a central shrine dedi-
cated to Renenutet. The Twelfth Dynasty pharaohs were
also honored there in deified forms.
The Ptolemaic Dynasty (304–30 B.C.E.) refurbished
the temple at Narmouthis and added a processional way
with lions and sphinxes, a kiosk, a portico, and trans-
verse vestibule. Sandstone is the main material used
throughout.natron A mildly antiseptic substance that has the abil-
ity to absorb moisture, it was used in all periods of
ancient Egypt, associated especially with the processes of
embalming and mummification. It was called net-jeryt,
“Belonging to the God”; besmen,the name of a local god;
or besmen desher,denoting a red variety of natron that
was hygroscopic. It was found in WADI NATRUN, near
modern Cairo, also called the Natron Valley, and in Upper
and Lower Egyptian sites. Natron is a mixture of sodium
bicarbonate and sodium carbonate or sodium chloride.
The substance was originally used as a detergent and
as a tooth cleaner, and in some eras as a glaze for early
craft wares. In time natron was used as the main preserv-
ing agent for mortuary rituals. The basic ingredient for
embalming, natron was the steeping substance for drying
corpses and preventing decay. It was used in its dry crys-
tal form, and mummy linens were sometimes soaked in
natron before wrapping. Natron was also formed into
balls and chewed at certain religious ceremonies by the
rulers or their priest representatives. When the substance
was used in these rituals, natron represented the trans-
formed state assumed by the dead in the paradise beyond
the grave.
See also MORTUARY RITUALS.262 Napata