orate tombs and funerary regalia. The A Group were ene-
mies of southern Nubians and were colonized by the
Egyptians. The C Group, prospering c. 2100–1500 B.C.E.,
were linked to the B Group and resided in the area called
Wawat by the Egyptians. They farmed, herded animals,
and traded goods. During the Twelfth Dynasty
(1991–1783 B.C.E.), the C Group was viewed as a threat,
and the Egyptians began to fortify the second cataract
installations.
The Kermeh culture in Nubia dates to c. 1990–1550
B.C.E. Kermeh became an Egyptian colony under ’Ahmose
(r. 1550–1525 B.C.E.), and many nobles of this culture
were educated in Thebes as a result. The area was of vital
concern to Egypt from the start of the dynastic period,
and as early as the First Dynasty (2920–2770 B.C.E.) the
Egyptian rulers were active to some extent in that region.
AHA(Menes; 2920 B.C.E.) recorded the taking of two vil-
lages below GEBEL EL-SILSILEHduring his reign, and the
ruler DJER’Sname appears in a mutilated battle scene at
WADI HALFA. Trade with Nubia was also considered essen-
tial to most dynastic ambitions and resulted in explo-
ration and occupation of Nile sites, although the
Egyptians did not penetrate deeply into the lands beyond
the Nile shoreline.
The Egyptians representing throne interests ex-
changed pottery and stone for ivory, gold, ebony, ostrich
feathers and eggs, leopard skins, copper, amethyst, car-
nelian, feldspar, oils, gum resins, cattle, dogs, and a vari-
ety of exotic wild animals. In time the Nubians
manufactured additional goods in wood, leather, hide,
and various types of metals, using these wares to trade as
well, and accepting copper tools, jewelry, and amulets in
exchange. The various Nubian cultures were also learn-
ing about the Egyptian cultic traditions and studying
their architectural endeavors.
At the end of the Second Dynasty, KHA’SEKHEMWY(r.
2640 B.C.E.) led a military campaign into Nubia, starting
colonies, fortifying the major mining sites, and building
garrisons at the trading posts already in existence. The
Egyptians maintained these posts but did not attempt to
penetrate into the hinterland. The first such trading set-
tlement known was at BUHEN, near the second cataract,
founded as early as the Second Dynasty.
SNEFRU(r. 2575–2551 B.C.E.), the founder of the
Fourth Dynasty, invaded Nubia and reported bringing
back prisoners and cattle. The gold and copper mines of
the region were probably being worked by then, and
FORTRESSES and garrisoned positions were becoming
more extensive. Nubians were already serving as merce-
naries in the Egyptian army. General WENI, the comman-
der of the military forces for PEPI I(r. 2289–2255 B.C.E.),
attached various units of Nubian warriors to his forces
when he conducted campaigns in the SINAIand Canaan-
ite regions.
The extent of Egyptian activity in Nubia during the
First Intermediate Period (2134–2040 B.C.E.) is in ques-
tion to some extent, but MONTUHOTEP II(r. 2061–2010
B.C.E.) of the Eleventh Dynasty is credited with recon-
quering the original Egyptian holdings in Nubia after
uniting Upper and Lower Egypt.
During the Middle Kingdom (2040–1640 B.C.E.), the
QUARRIESand mining operations were reopened, and car-
avans from southern domains traded with the Egyptians
at the fortresses maintained on the Nile. These fortresses
stretched along the river from cataract to cataract, with
each garrison positioned to send messages north or south
in case the Nubians demonstrated widespread migrations
or threatened the trade routes. In the Middle Kingdom
the term Kush identified the lower territories of Nubia, a
designation that was used throughout the New Kingdom
as well.
When the Middle Kingdom collapsed, the Egyptians
withdrew from Nubia, and the region around KERMEH
became a capital for the people of Kush. The Kushites,
however, were not able to assist the HYKSOS, or Asiatics,
when the rulers of the Seventeenth Dynasty at Thebes
began their northern assault in c. 1560 B.C.E. KAMOSE,
the last pharaoh of that line, and the older brother
of ’AHMOSE, the founder of the New Kingdom, appears
to have had a viceroy of Nubia. He may have taken pos-
session of the former Egyptian territories before march-
ing against APOPHIS (2), the Hyksos king, using the
MEDJAY, the veteran Nubian troops in service to Thebes.
When Kamose did go into battle he used these Nubians
who had taken up residence in large numbers in the
Egyptian Eastern Desert. The Medjay are believed to be
the PAN-GRAVEpeople. The necropolis areas designated
as pan-grave sites appear in southern Egypt at this time,
as well as in Lower Nubia. The Medjay remains found
below the first cataract probably belonged to those
troops who served as an occupying force for the Egyp-
tians there.
’Ahmose had viceroys of Nubia and rehabilitated the
fortresses there. In time the Egyptians would control the
Nile down to the fifth cataract. They did not venture far
inland at any given point but were content to conduct
extensive trading operations, along with their usual min-
ing and quarrying systems.
During this period the Egyptians displayed little
interest in the customs, religion, or national ideals of the
Nubian people. Their god, DEDUN, received some royal
patronage, as during the reign of TUTHMOSIS III(1479–
1425 B.C.E.), but in general the region was viewed simply
as an occupied territory and was extended none of the
courtesies offered the Levantine city-states that were also
part of the empire.
Nubia was administered by Egyptian officials accord-
ing to accepted procedures. It was divided into an Upper
Nubia and a Lower Nubia, each under the control of a
governor. The northern province probably included the
lands as far south as SEMNA, was called Wawat, and was
administered at ANIBA. Upper Nubia was governed fromNubia 281