have a genuine solar significance. They were positioned
according to the traditional patterns in order to reflect
the cultic aspirations. The natural daily manifestations of
the dawn and the sunset were symbolized in mystical
fashion by these pillars, and they had to conform to spec-
ifications as to height and location.
Most of the obelisks erected in ancient Egypt were of
granite, quartzite, or basalt. At the ASWAN quarry, a
favorite source of stone for obelisks during the imperial
period, granite was heated by bonfires and then cooled by
water until the stone split; wooden spikes drove passage-
ways into the desired sections. Workmen cleared a path
to the stone, marking the length, which was about 100
feet. Using tools made of hard stones, the workmen
began to fashion the sides of the pillar, crawling in and
around the obelisk to complete their section of the mon-
ument. Large boulders supported the stone being carved
so that it would not crack as the workmen leveled the
sides and completed the surface carving.
When the pillar was carved to satisfaction, ropes
were slung around it and the stone was raised and placed
on a heavy sledge. It took several thousand workmen to
pull the sledge to the banks of the Nile. There, vessels
waited to allow safe loading of the pillars. The unique
aspect of this loading process is that the boats remained
in dry dock until the pillars were safely on board. Then
the vessel and the sacred cargo were slowly floated on
water emptied into the dock. When the ship and the pil-
lar were stabilized, the dock gates were opened and the
vessel made its way out onto the Nile.
Nine galleys, each with more than 30 rowers, took
the vessel and the obelisk to Thebes, where a ceremonial
ritual and vast crowds awaited their arrival. A ramp was
prepared in advance, and the pillar was pulled to the
incline. The unique part of the ramp was a funnel-shaped
hole, filled with sand. The obelisk was positioned over
the hole and the sand was emptied, thus lowering the pil-
lar into place. When the obelisk had been positioned on
its base and fastened there, the ramp was removed and
the priests and royal household arrived to take part in
dedication rituals and in ceremonies in honor of the god
of the stone.
Obelisks are characteristically Egyptian but have
been honored by all civilizations since the fall of the New
Kingdom. Few of the original pillars remain in Egypt as
several capitals around the world boast at least one of
these graceful emblems of faith, taken from the Nile.
They remain insignias of another time and place and
visions of a truly ancient artistry.
Octavia (fl. first century B.C.E.)Roman woman, the sister
of Octavian, the future emperor Augustus, and the wife of
Marc Antony
Octavia was divorced by ANTONYin 32 B.C.E. after years
of humiliation because of his alliance with CLEOPATRA VII
(r. 51–30 B.C.E.). She remained loyal to Antony through-
out her ordeal, but her apparent suffering hardened Octa-
vian (AUGUSTUS) against Cleopatra VII and Antony and
added resolve to his campaign to put an end to the Egyp-
tian queen-pharaoh and her lover.Ogdoad The eight gods worshiped in HERMOPOLIS
MAGNA and first mentioned in the Middle Kingdom
Period (2040–1640 B.C.E.) religious texts, these deities
were believed to have been the first beings to emerge
from the watery chaos at the time of creation. The
Ogdoad was also believed to constitute the soul of the
god Thoth. The male members of the Ogdoad, four in
number, were always depicted as having frog heads. The
four female divine consorts of these gods were always
depicted as serpent-headed. The Ogdoad ruled on the
earth and then were provided with powers beyond the
grave. These deities were
Amun and Amaunet deities of hiddenness (added
later and not part of the original eight).
Heh and Heket deities of eternity, also listed as
Huh and Hauhet.
Kek and Keket deities of darkness, also listed as
Kuk and Kauket.
Nun and Nunet deities of primeval waters and
chaos, associated with the Nile’s inundations; also listed
as Nun and Naunet.
Tenem and Tenemet deities of the twilight.
The Ogdoad deities were believed responsible as
well for the flow of the Nile and for the dawning of the
sun each day. Amun and Amaunet were added to the
Ogdoad in the PYRAMID TEXTS. They were proclaimed the
first deities to arise from the primeval waters. The
Ogdoad were thus a vital element of the moment of cre-
ation, remaining an important part of Egypt’s cosmogo-
nic system.oils Substances used in Egyptian rituals and cere-
monies, highly prized, and employed for cultic and royal
observances, oils were also used in medical procedures,
mummification, and as cosmetics bases. Tablets with
shallow basins of alabaster have been found on many
sites, an indication of a widespread use of such sub-
stances. A variety of these oils were available to the peo-
ple of the Nile Valley in all eras.
The most popular was hekenu,a type of oil used to
anoint the statues of the gods and to make the sanctuar-
ies of the temples fragrant. Syrian balsam, neckenensalve
oils, cedar oils, and “Best Libyan” oils were also
employed in ceremonies and in mummification pro-
cesses. The daily rituals of anointing the pharaoh
involved the highest grades of such substances.
See also DAILY ROYAL RITES; MORTUARY RITUALS.Oil Tree See PAY LANDS.286 Octavia