trade 411Book of the Earth a text that appeared first in the
reign of RAMESSES III(1194–1163 B.C.E.). Represented in
four sections, the mortuary document displayed the ris-
ing of RÉas the sun of NUN, the primordial chaos.
Book of the Heavens a tomb text appearing in the
reign of RAMESSES IV(1163–1156 B.C.E.). The 12 hours of
eternal night and the passage of the god RÉare depicted
in this mortuary document.
Litany of Ré a text that offers praise to the deity
and lists the 75 forms assumed by RÉas the supreme solar
deity and Underworld traveler.
Tomb Workers’ Revolt A small rebellion that took
place during the reign of RAMESSES III(1196–1163 B.C.E.).
THE SERVANTS OF THE PLACE OF TRUTH, DEIR EL-MEDINA,
labored solely for the ruler and were dependent upon
rations and goods provided. In Ramesses III’s 29th year,
these laborers elected a man named Amennakht to repre-
sent them in negotiations for better conditions.
The workers had not received rations for more than
a month and had suffered as a consequence. They began
to assemble at the mortuary temple of TUTHMOSIS IIIto
register their plight. On the following day they assem-
bled at the RAMESSEUMnearby and complained again.
Officials listened but did not provide rations. Violence,
punishments, and quarrels developed, continuing the
drastic situation. A VIZIERnamed Ta’a tried to alleviate
the situation but was not successful. The PAPYRUSthat
records these events ends abruptly without giving a
resolution.
Tract of Ré A sacred region of Egypt, stretching from
HELIOPOLISto AVARIS, a site in the eastern Delta near mod-
ern QANTIRon the Pelusiac branch of the Nile. This entire
area was the homeland of the Ramessids and once served
as a capital setting for the HYKSOS. Many monuments
were erected on this sacred tract.
trade The economic and artistic exchange system that
was used by Egypt and its neighbors from the Predynastic
Period (before 3000 B.C.E.) through the Ptolemaic Period
(304–30 B.C.E.). Such trade surely dates to the eras before
the unification of Egypt, c. 3000 B.C.E., as evidenced by
objects discovered in sites from that time. The NARMER
PALETTE, for example, with its depiction of monsters and
entwined long-necked serpents, is distinctly Mesopota-
mian in design.
Knife handles from the same period demonstrate fur-
ther Mesopotamian influences, probably brought about
by an exchange of trade goods and artistic values.
Mesopotamian cylinder seals were found in NAGADA II
sites. It is possible that trade was not the basis for the
appearance of such goods in Egypt; there are some who
theorize that such products were brought into Egypt by
migrant Mesopotamians entering the Nile Valley.
Early evidence of actual trade missions to Phoenicia
(modern Lebanon), no doubt for wood and cedar oil,
dates to the reign of ’ADJIBof the First Dynasty (c. 2700
B.C.E.). Syrian-style pottery has also been found in tombs
from this period. Such trade was probably conducted by
sea, as the Asiatic BEDOUINSin the SINAImade land-based
caravans dangerous. Egypt was trading with the Libyans
in the Early Dynastic Period (2920–2575 B.C.E.), proba-
bly for olive oil. The rulers also fought to maintain
Egypt’s western borders and to subjugate the Libyans,
called the Hatiu-ain that period.
NUBIAwas an early trading partner. DJER(r. c. 2900
B.C.E.), the second king of the First Dynasty, is reported
to have taken part in a battle at WADI HALFA, where two
villages were subdued. KHA’SEKHEMWY, who actually com-
pleted the unification of Egypt during his reign (c. 2650
B.C.E.), conducted punitive campaigns there as well,
probably to safeguard the trade centers being operated in
the region. Ebony and ivory from the Nubian area were
items prized by the Egyptians, and they gave the Nubians
copper tools, jewelry, and amulets in return. Some local
Nubian chiefs appear to have served as trade agents for
the Egyptians, no doubt for a percentage of all goods
brought to the centers by the outlying natives. These
chiefs grew wealthy, as the Nubian gravesites indicate.
The Egyptians established a trading settlement at BUHEN,
at the second cataract, in the Second Dynasty, probably to
provide a center for the caravans arriving from the inte-
rior regions.
The adventures of HARKHUFin the Sixth Dynasty (c.
2245 B.C.E.) are well documented. He brought back
incense, ebony, oils, panther skins, elephant tusks, and a
marvelous dancing DWARF, which was the delight of the
boy ruler PEPI II(r. 2246–2152 B.C.E.).
In the Middle Kingdom Period, after MONTUHOTEP II
had reunited Egypt in 2040 B.C.E., the trading centers
began to flourish again. Expeditions were sent to Punt in
almost every reign, and a shipbuilding operation center
on the Red Sea was begun to facilitate them. Contact had
been made with PUNTas early as the Fifth Dynasty
(2465–2323 B.C.E.), as reported by the PALERMO STONE.In
the Middle Kingdom Period the Egyptians had contact
with many of the Mediterranean nations, perhaps even
Crete, called Kheftiu by the Nile people. Minoan pottery
was discovered in Middle Kingdom tombs. In Nubia the
major forts were refurbished and new ones erected at crit-
ical junctures along the Nile, to facilitate trade and the
extraction of natural resources. Egypt conducted trade in
the Mediterranean region, and a special relationship was
developed with BYBLOSin Phoenicia, where considerable
Egyptian influence is obvious.
The New Kingdom Period (1550–1070 B.C.E.) was
the period in which the armies of the Nile marched to the
Euphrates and to the fifth cataract, just above modern
Khartoum, in modern Sudan. The expeditions to Punt are
well documented in this era also, especially those sent by