412 Travels of an EgyptianHATSHEPSUT(r. 1473–1458 B.C.E.). Egyptians were much
taken with luxury goods in this period, and the tributes
coming from exotic lands (either vassal or client states or
allies) increased their appetite for foreign items.
The Libyans fought against Egypt on several occa-
sions, especially in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynas-
ties, joined by a roving group of brigands called the SEA
PEOPLES, but the region was exploited and trade was con-
tinued. The Libyan trade, as well as the trade with other
regions, appears to have been officially regulated in this
period with tolls and tariffs. The kings sent out expedi-
tions and fleets regularly, and many officials led the com-
mercial ventures, some coming from the bureau
established for foreign trade. Caravans moved through
the Libyan desert area oases, and pack trains were sent
into the northern Mediterranean domains.
It is believed that Egypt conducted trade in this era
with Cyprus, Crete, Cilicia, Ionia, the Aegean islands,
and perhaps even with mainland Greece. Syria remained
a popular destination for trading fleets and caravans,
where Syrian products were joined with those coming
from the regions of the Persian Gulf. The Egyptians
received wood, wines, oils, resins, silver, copper, and cat-
tle in exchange for gold (which they had in vaster
amounts than any other country), linens, papyrus paper,
leather goods, and grains. Money was not in use in Egypt
at this time, but a fixed media of exchange was instituted
so that trade goods could be valued consistently and
fairly. Gold, silver, copper, and even grain were used as
bartering values.
During much of the New Kingdom Period, the
Egyptians controlled Nubia and maintained the region
around the cataracts, conducting mining and quarrying
operations. The trade centers flourished, with caravans
coming from the south and the interiors. Nubia pro-
vided Egypt with ebony, ivory, resins, and exotic wild
animals.
Tributes and foreign trade declined after the reign of
RAMESSES III(1194–1163 B.C.E.). Expeditions to the min-
ing regions of the SINAI ended after RAMESSES V (r.
1156–1151 B.C.E.), but there was no drastic end to trade
when HERIHOR and SMENDESusurped the throne and
power in 1070 B.C.E. Egypt was an established trading
partner with the world around it, and that tradition was
maintained in good times and bad.
During the Third Intermediate Period (1070–712
B.C.E.), trade appears to have continued in the hands of
newly appointed bureaucrats and independent adventur-
ers. Trade was necessary to Egypt’s economy and was a
factor of stability as the land splintered into rival city-
states. When the Twenty-fifth Dynasty (770–657 B.C.E.)
arose out of Nubia, trade with the southern domain flour-
ished, but other Mediterranean trade systems were not
abandoned by that or succeeding royal lines.
In the Late Period (712–332 B.C.E.), the rise of
GREECEsignaled a new dominant trade factor. The city of
NAUKRATISin the Delta served as the hub of Greek trade
for centuries. The Greeks provided silver ore and slaves
taken from the northern Aegean area and received Egyp-
tian grain and manufactured artistic wares in return. The
Persians interrupted such trade from 525 to 404 B.C.E.
and 343 to 332 B.C.E., but the victories of ALEXANDER III
THE GREAT(r. 332–323 B.C.E.) assured that the established
trade system flourished until the suicide of CLEOPATRA VII
(r. 51–30 B.C.E.), when the Romans declared Egypt a
province of special status and regulated such commerce
out of ALEXANDRIA.Travels of an Egyptian (The Tale of Mohor) It is a
literary text dating to the last periods of the Nineteenth
Dynasty (1307–1196 B.C.E.). This text is believed to be
an actual journal of a tour, serving as a geographical
exercise for students. An official depicts his travels
through Syria and Palestine, including assaults and hard-
ships. It has been compared to the Tale of WENAMUNof a
later era.Tree of Heaven A plant that grew in the mythical par-
adises of the Egyptians. Associated with the cult of
HATHOR, the tree was a resting place for the SEVEN
HATHORS, who supplied the deceased Egyptians with
celestial food beyond the grave.
See also PERSEA TREE.Troja See TUREH.Tschesertep A serpent demon mentioned in a magical
formula in the PYRAMID TEXTS, the creature was one of the
many enemies of the human soul that had to be con-
quered in order to reach the bliss of paradise beyond the
grave. Such serpents were also the enemies of the god RÉ
and assaulted him on his journeys through the TUAT,or
Underworld, each night.
See also APOPHIS.Tuat (Duat) This was the realm of the dead in Egyp-
tian cultic traditions formed by OSIRIS’s body as a circular
valley. Tuat was the destination of the deceased after
being judged in the halls of the god Osiris that were in
the sixth section of the abode. The soul of the dead had
to undertake a journey in order to reach the Tuat,follow-
ing the example of the god RÉ, who made the same per-
ilous journey each night. The souls of Egyptians waited
in the first section of the Tuatfor Ré to waken them and
the souls of foreigners were in the fifth division. The
damned and the demons watched Ré pass as well, and
they wailed when he abandoned them. There were many
levels, similar to Dantes’ vision of the underworld.
Osiris was also present in the Tuatand he brought
rebirth to the dead. Ré sailed through the Tuatand then