Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt

writing materials 433

sites and did the cooking, weaving, or nursing. They
received honors as a result.
Legally, the women of ancient Egypt were the equals
of men, and they are mentioned frequently in regulations
concerning the proper attitudes of officials. Some didactic
literature warns young men against frivolous or flirtatious
women, but there is also a text that admonishes young
men to think about the travails and sufferings that their
mothers endured for their sake. Women depicted in the
mortuary reliefs and paintings are shown conducting the
normal household tasks, although women of higher sta-
tus no doubt had household servants to do these chores.
Women are presented in most tomb scenes as young
and beautiful, whether they are the wives or mothers of
the men buried there. Such idealization was part of the
mortuary or funerary art and did not represent the actual
age or physical condition of the women portrayed.

No women were recorded as having excelled in the

various arts. No government positions were held by

women, except as regents for the royal heirs or nome heirs,

and even in the temples the roles of women were normally

peripheral. The early priestesses were relegated to the role

of songstresses or chantresses in the New Kingdom Period

(1550–1070 B.C.E.). In the Eighteenth Dynasty, queens

held the rank of “GOD’S WIFE OF AMUN,” a role that would

evolve into a politically powerful role in later generations,

restricted to princesses of the various dynasties.

At the same time, however, women bought and

bartered items in the marketplace, sold real estate, over-

saw doctor’s treatments, piloted boats, and served as

court-appointed executrixes of estates. They normally

married only with their consent, unless they were NOME

heiresses or members of the royal families. They testified

as valid witnesses in court, drew up wills, and filed for

divorce. In a divorce proceeding, the woman kept her

dowry and was usually awarded one-third of the joint

property. In the Late Period (712–332 B.C.E.) couples

made prenuptial agreements. Higher-ranked women were

comparatively literate and quite equal to men before the

law. Daughters received shares of all inheritances and

maintained personal properties.

Suggested Readings:Arnold, Dorothea. The Royal Women

of Amarna: Images of Beauty in Ancient Egypt.New Haven,

Conn.: Yale University Press, 1996; Hawass, Zahi A. Silent

Images: Women in Pharaonic Egypt. New York: Harry

Abrams, 2000; Rowlandson, Jane, and Roger S. Bagnall,

eds. Women and Society in Greek and Roman Egypt.Cam-

bridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1998; Tyldes-

ley, Joyce A. Daughters of Isis: Women of Ancient Egypt.

London: Penguin, 1995.

Woser(fl. 15th century B.C.E.)Vizier of the Eighteenth

Dynasty

He served TUTHMOSIS III(r. 1479–1425 B.C.E.). Woser was

the uncle of the famed REKHMIRÉ, who followed him in

that office. Two tombs at THEBESand a shrine at GEBEL EL-

SILSILEHcommemorated Woser. The latter shrine had a

single chamber with a statue niche at one end.

“writing from the god himself”This was a term used

to denote any text that dated to the early historical peri-

ods of the nation. Such a text, having been preserved over

the centuries, was deemed sacred and viewed as divine

inspiration. Because of its age, the text was revered and

carefully observed.

writing materials See SCRIBE.

Khamerernebty, the consort of Menkauré of the Old Kingdom

Period, in a strikingly intimate pose.(Hulton Archive.)