Egypt and in Rome because it involved the violation of
religious sanctuary.
Arsinoe (5)(fl. fourth century B.C.E.)Mother of Pto-
lemy I Soter
She was the wife of LAGUS, a general of the army of
ALEXANDER III THE GREAT(332–323 B.C.E.). Arsinoe bore
PTOLEMY I SOTER(304–284 B.C.E.), who became the satrap
of Egypt under Alexander the Great and the founder of
the Ptolemaic Dynasty.
Arsinoe (6) A site erected by PTOLEMY II PHILADELPHUS
(285–246 B.C.E.) near Crocodilopolis in his efforts to
restore the FAIYUMregion of Egypt, many papyri were dis-
covered in the ruins of Arsinoe.
Arsinoe (7) A site erected by PTOLEMY II PHILADELPHUS
(285–246 B.C.E.) near modern Ardscherud, beside Suez at
the northern end of the gulf, the city was the terminal
point for a canal that dated back centuries. In time Arsi-
noe became a port for Red Sea trade wares.
Artabanus (Ardahan)(fl. fifth centuryB.C.E.) Com-
mander of the palace guardand the slayer of Xerxes I
(486–466 B.C.E.)
Also called Ardahan, he is also credited with killing
Xerxes I’s son Darius, either before or after killing XERXES
I. Artabanus was in control of Persia for seven months
and was recognized by Egypt as king. He was slain by
ARTAXERXES I(465–424 B.C.E.), Xerxes’ son, after the Per-
sian general MEGABYZUSturned on him in 464/465 B.C.E.
art and architecture
The stunning expressions of Egyptian ideals and aspira-
tions that have made the nation the focus of study and
examination for centuries, the art and architecture of the
ancient people of the Nile exemplify spiritual concepts
that gave testimony to the various eras, illuminating the
national concern with the worship of the gods and the
cultic beliefs in eternal life. Such images arose early in the
Nile Valley and assumed new dimensions as the national
culture developed.
LATE PREDYNASTIC PERIOD
(4000–3000 B.C.E.)
Art
The people of the Nile Valley began producing art as
early as the seventh millennium B.C.E. Decorative pat-
terns consisted of geometric designs of varying shapes
and sizes and obscure symbols representing totems or
cultic priorities. Direct representational drawings,
mainly of animals and hunters, came at a slightly later
date. Evidence of these sorts of artistic advances among
the Neolithic cultures in Upper Egypt and NUBIA(mod-
ernSudan) is provided by the drawings of boats and
domesticated animals, most notably at HIERAKONPOLIS,
where some elements of the Mesopotamian and Saharan
styles are evident.
Pottery of the Predynastic Period, as well as figures
fashioned out of bone and ivory, initiated the artistic
motifs that would be influential for many centuries. Ves-
sels and palettes accompanied fine black-topped pottery,
leading to red polished ware decorated with cream-col-
ored paint. The light on dark painting technique made
pottery of this period distinctive. While geometric
designs were developed first, artisans began to experi-
ment with the human, plant, and animal forms as well.
An excellent example is the bottom of a bowl with
entwining hippopotami. Such bowls can be dated to the
NAGADAI Period (4000–3500 B.C.E.), also called Amratian
(from el-’Amra). The ultimate achievement of this period
was the mastering of Egypt’s most famous artistic
medium: stone.
In the NAGADA II Period (3500–3000 B.C.E.), also
called the Gerzean (from Girza), stone pieces were being
fashioned with regularity. Some of the most notable
examples of these were discovered in a cemetery in the
Girza district, the Thinite Nome of Upper Egypt. Ivory
and stone figures were carved in cylindrical form, crude
in detail but remarkable for their size. Reliefs in stone
and statuary werealso used by the cult of the god Min.
Technical advances were evident in the pieces recovered
in Hierakonpolis (both in stone and faience), and in ABY-
DOSand HALWAN.
Stone PALETTESand MACEHEADSappeared at the end
of the Predynastic Period but with a clarified sense of
composition. The Oxford palette from Hierakonpolis is
probably the earliest example of this form, along with the
Louvre fragment and the macehead of the SCORPIONKing.
Of primary importance in the development of composi-
tion, of course, was the NARMER PALETTE, a green slate
slab from Hierakonpolis intended to serve as a tablet on
which cosmetics were blended. The palette, utilitarian in
purpose, was crucial nevertheless from an artistic stand-
point. The style of later Egyptian art is also remarkably
visible in the depiction of the military campaigns in the
Delta on these pieces. Vitality, power, and a certain sense
of drama are incorporated into the carvings. The palette
thus was a model for later generations of artists.
Increased regulation of human representation came later
with the canon of Egyptian art.
Architecture
Architecture in the Predynastic Period evolved at the
same pace as reliefs, painting, and sculpture. Writing and
the construction of tombs and temples were the almost
immediate result of the ultimate rise of political central-
ization in the late Nagada II (or Gerzean Period). The
few remaining examples of architecture in this era point
to the use of mud brick, demonstrated in the painted
chamber “Decorated Tomb 100” at Hierakonpolis. Citiesart and architecture 47