Scarcity
As noted previously, if something is plentiful, possession of it will not increase your
power. A resource must be perceived as scarce to create dependency.
Scarcity can help explain how low-ranking employees gain power if they have impor-
tant knowledge not available to high-ranking employees. Possession of a scarce resource—
in this case, important knowledge—makes those who don’t have it dependent on those
who do. Thus, an individual might refuse to show others how to do a job, or might
refuse to share information, thereby increasing his or her importance.Nonsubstitutability
The fewer substitutes for a resource, the more power comes from control over that
resource. At Apple Computer, for example, most observers, as well as the board, believed
that no one other than Steve Jobs could turn the company around when they returned
him to the role of CEO in 1997. In another example, when a union goes on strike and
management is not permitted to replace the striking employees, the union has consid-
erable control over the organization’s ability to carry out its tasks.
People are often able to ask for special rewards (higher pay or better assignments)
because they have skills that others do not. This chapter’s Point/Counterpointfeature on
page 243 considers the fairness of rewarding some people better than others.INFLUENCETACTICS
Looking at the 2002 Winter Olympics figure skating controversy, we can find a number of
instances where the various people involved in the controversy used influence tactics to get
their way. There is some evidence that the French and Russian judges formed a coalition to
ensure that the French ice dancers would get a gold medal in a later event. The Russian mob-
ster used bargaining, trading bribes for votes. International Olympic Committee president
Jacques Rogge used assertiveness to convince International Skating Union (ISU) president
Ottavio Cinquanta that in fact there would be two gold medals. He also threatened the ISU with
sanctions, including banning judged sports from the Olympics, if they did not award the sec-
ond medal. So how and why do influence tactics work?How do individuals translate their bases of power into specific,
desired actions? Research indicates that people use common
tactics to influence outcomes.^21 One study identifies the nine
influence tacticsmanagers and employees use to increase
their power:^22
1.Rational persuasion.Using facts and data to make a logi-
cal or rational presentation of ideas.
2.Inspirational appeals.Appealing to values, ideals, and goals when making a
request.
3.Consultation.Getting others involved to support one’s objectives.
4.Ingratiation.Using flattery, creating goodwill, and being friendly prior to mak-
ing a request.
5.Personal appeals.Appealing to loyalty and friendship when asking for something.
6.Exchange.Offering favours or benefits in exchange for support.
7.Coalition tactics.Getting the support of other people to provide backing when
making a request.
8.Pressure.Using demands, threats, and reminders to get someone to do something.
9.Legitimating tactics.Claiming the authority or right to make a request, or
showing that it supports organizational goals or policies.228 Part 3Interacting Effectively
influence tactics Ways that
individuals translate power bases
into specific actions.
Steve Jobs
http://www.apple.com/pr/bios/jobs.html
4 What tactics can be
used to increase
power?Have you ever
wondered how you
might increase your
power?