Which influence tactics were used by
participants in the figure skating con-
troversy? This chapter’s CBC Video Case
Incidentillustrates how the key playes
of the Liberal Party’s sponsorship scan-
dal used influence tactics to win gov-
ernment contracts.
Researchers found that there are sig-
nificant differences in the tactics used
to influence actions, depending upon
whether people are interacting with
someone above or below them in rank.
While all individuals favour rational per-
suasion, those managing upward are
even more likely to use it (77 percent
vs. 52 percent of those managing down-
ward). Those managing downward are
next most likely to use pressure (22 per-
cent) or ingratiation (15 percent). The other favoured choices of those managing upward
were coalition tactics (15 percent) and pressure (15 percent).^23
EMPOWERMENT: GIVING POWER TOEMPLOYEES
Thus far our discussion has implied that—to some extent, at least—power is most likely
to rest in the hands of managers, to be used as part of their interaction with employees.
However, in today’s workplace, there is a movement toward sharing more power with
employees by putting them in teams and also by making them responsible for some
of the decisions regarding their jobs. With the flattening of organizations, so that there
are fewer middle managers, employees also end up with more responsibilities.
Organizational specialists refer to this increasing responsibility as empowerment.We
briefly mention in Chapter 8 that one of the current trends in leadership is empower-
ing employees. Between 1995 and 2005, nearly 50 000 articles about empowerment
have appeared in the print media in the United States and Canada, with almost 6000 arti-
cles appearing in Canadian newspapers during that time.^24
Definition of Empowerment
The definition of empowermentthat we use here refers to the freedom and the ability of
employees to make decisions and commitments.^25 Unfortunately, neither managers nor
researchers can agree on the definition of empowerment. Robert E. Quinn and Gretchen
M. Spreitzer, in their consulting work with a Fortune500 manufacturing company, found
that executives were split about 50-50 in their definition.^26 One group of executives
“believed that empowerment was about delegating decision making within a set of clear
boundaries.” Empowerment would start at the top, specific goals and tasks would be
assigned, responsibility would be delegated, and people would be held accountable for their
results. The other group believed that empowerment was “a process of risk taking and
personal growth.” This type of empowerment starts at the bottom, with considering the
employees’ needs, showing them what empowered behaviour looks like, building teams,
encouraging risk-taking, and demonstrating trust in employees’ ability to perform.
Much of the press on empowerment has been positive, with both executives and
employees applauding the ability of front-line workers to make and execute important
decisions.^27 However, not all reports are favourable. One management expert noted
that much of the talk about empowerment is simply lip service,^28 with organizations
telling employees that they have decision-making responsibility, but not giving them the
Chapter 7Power and Politics 229Management at Flextronics plants
in China used legitimating tactics
and rational persuasion in estab-
lishing a series of rigid rules and
procedures to guard against the
threat of severe acute respiratory
syndrome (SARS). Employees
complied with the rules—such as
twice-daily hand washing after
eating meals in the company can-
teen—because they understood
the mandates were made for
their own safety.empowerment The freedom and
the ability of employees to make
decisions and commitments.5 What does it mean to
be empowered?Jean Brault and the
Sponsorship Scandal