level, and the highest level is the principled level. These levels and their stages are
described in Exhibit 9-7.
The research indicates that people proceed through the stages one step at a time,
though they do not necessarily reach the highest stage.^87 Most adults are at a mid-level
of moral development—they are strongly influenced by peers and will follow an orga-
nization’s rules and procedures. Those individuals who have progressed to the higher
stages place increased value on the rights of others, regardless of the majority’s opinion,
and are likely to challenge organizational practices they personally believe are wrong.
Those at the higher stages are most likely to make ethical decisions using the criteria of
rights, justice, and care, which we discuss earlier.
Locus of Control
Research indicates that people with an external locus of control(that is, they believe their
lives are controlled by outside forces, such as luck or chance) are less likely to take
Chapter 9Decision Making, Creativity, and Ethics 315Stage of moral
developmentLocus of
controlOrganizational
environmentEthical
decision-making
behaviourEXHIBIT 9-6 Factors Affecting Ethical Decision-Making BehaviourPrincipled- Following self-chosen ethical
principles even if they violate
the law. - Valuing rights of others and
upholding absolute values
and rights regardless of the
majorityís opinion.
Conventional- Maintaining conventional
order by fulfilling
obligations to which
you have agreed. - Living up to what is
expected by people close
to you.
Preconventional- Following rules only
when doing so is in your
immediate interest. - Sticking to rules to avoid
physical punishment.
EXHIBIT 9-7 Stages of Moral DevelopmentSource:Based on L. Kohlberg, “Moral Stages and Moralization: The Cognitive-Developmental Approach,” in Moral
Development and Behaviour: Theory, Research, and Social Issues, ed. T. Lickona (New York: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1976), pp. 34–35.