Contrast Effects
There is an old saying among entertainers who perform in variety shows: Never follow
an act that has children or animals in it.
This example demonstrates how contrast effectscan distort perceptions.^18 We don’t
evaluate a person in isolation. Our reaction to one person is often influenced by other
people we have recently encountered.
Consider what happens when a manager interviews job candidates from a pool of
applicants. The evaluation of a candidate can be affected by his or her place in the inter-
view schedule. The candidate is likely to receive a better evaluation if interviewed after
a mediocre applicant, and a worse evaluation if interviewed after a strong applicant.Projection
It is easy to judge others if we assume that they are similar to us. For instance, if you want
challenge and responsibility in your job, you assume that others want the same. Or
you are honest and trustworthy, so you take it for granted that other people are equally
honest and trustworthy. This tendency for people to attribute their own characteristics
to other people—which is called projection—can distort perceptions.
People who engage in projection tend to perceive others according to what they
themselves are like rather than perceiving others as they really are. Because they always
judge people as similar to themselves, when they observe someone who is actually like
them their perceptions are naturally correct. But when they observe others who are not
like them, their perceptions are not so accurate.Stereotyping
When we judge someone on the basis of our perception of the group to which he or
she belongs, we are using the shortcut called stereotyping. Stereotyping differs from
the halo effect in that the latter is based on a single characteristic of the individual, rather
than the individual’s membership in a particular group. According to a popular literary
anecdote, F. Scott Fitzgerald engaged in stereotyping when he told Ernest Hemingway, “the
rich are very different from you and me,” implying that the wealthy have values and
behaviour unlike regular people. Hemingway’s reply, “Yes, they have more money,” indi-
cated that he refused to generalize characteristics of people on the basis of their wealth.
Generalization, of course, is not without advantages. It helps us simplify a complex
world, and it permits us to maintain consistency. It is easier to deal with a large num-
ber of stimuli if we use stereotypes. As an example, assume you are a sales manager
looking to fill a sales position in your territory and 100 people have applied. You want
to hire someone who is ambitious and hard-working and who can deal well with adver-
sity without spending too much time interviewing candidates. Your last five hires have
been very successful and participated in athletics at university. So you eliminate from con-
sideration candidates who have not participated in university sports, considerably reduc-
ing your search time. To the extent that athletes are ambitious, hard-working, and able
to deal with adversity, the use of this stereotype can improve your decision making.
The problem, clearly, is when we inaccurately stereotype.^19 All university athletes
are not necessarilyambitious, hard-working, or good at dealing with adversity, just as
all accountants are not necessarilyquiet and introspective. Moreover, when we stereo-
type like this, we run the risk of overlooking highly qualified people who do not meet
our stereotypes. Recent research examining how Hollywood studio executives and pro-
ducers judge the creative potential of relatively unknown screenwriters makes this clear.^20
When the screenwriters did not meet the stereotype of creative individuals in their pres-
entation or appearance, they were judged as not creative (and often not taken seriously)38 Part 1 Understanding the Workplace
contrast effects The concept that
our reaction to one person is often
influenced by other people we have
recently encountered.
projection Attributing one’s own
characteristics to other people.
stereotyping Judging someone
on the basis of one’s perception of
the group to which that person
belongs.