AFRICAN STUDIES(e.g., rap). People of African descent have facilitat-
ed the growth of myriad musical genres, such as
reggae, zouk, jazz, blues, soca, zaico, calypso, go-
go, Hip Hop, and gospel. In yet other instances,
Africans have chosen to embrace, master, and
operate within the unmodified European form
(e.g., opera, classical music).
Religion is another excellent example of a
sociocultural institution that challenges us to de-
fine what is distinctively African. Forms of indige-
nous African religion are as diverse as the conti-
nent and people themselves. Christianity, Islam,
and Judaism all have long histories on the conti-
nent. The same is true for traditional, animistic
African religions that imbue all features of the
environment with spiritual qualities. It is perhaps
the long tradition of polytheism—or, more cor-
rectly, the belief in, and acceptance of a Supreme
God who is in turn represented in the world by
several intermediary spirits—that made Africa and
African people such fertile ground for the spread
of diverse religions.
In addition, colonial powers felt a need to
control all forms of thought and expression in
order to ensure their continued dominion over
the indigenous people. Religion was recognized as
an especially powerful medium with immense ca-
pacity to control the daily behavior of people.
Thus, religion was a central component in the
colonial arsenal and pattern of domination. In
spite of this, many traditional African religions
have survived the test of time. Both the original
forms and syncretic amalgamations of Western
and traditional religion are found throughout the
diaspora. On the island of Jamaica, one can ob-
serve how the Ashanti religion Kumina has flour-
ished and grown over time into the distinctly
Jamaican Pukumina (Pocomania). Linkages such
as the one between the Gabonese sect known as
Bwiti and Haitian vodun continue, in which the
words for traditional healer are almost the same.
Continuities are also seen in Shango/Santeria (Bra-
zil) and Rastafarianism (Jamaica and international-
ly). Religious forms throughout the African diaspora
range from the classical European through the
traditional African into the Islamic, with a large
variety of syncretic forms interspersed throughout.
The organization of social and community life
in Africa and across the African diaspora also runs
the spectrum from indigenous to nonindigenous.
In a now familiar pattern, there exist places in
Africa or in the African diaspora where traditional
African forms of family life, dating back centuries,
persist. Similarly, there are places where family
forms are closer to the European or the Islamic
model. The same observations can be offered
about education and the organization of schools
among Africans in a given society.Predictably, given Africa’s history of subjuga-
tion, it is in realms of international power and
influence, economics, government, and the mili-
tary, that African development has been most
restricted. Historical deprivation has resulted in
the ranking of Africa and people of African ances-
try at the bottom of all indicators of economic
development. While other formerly colonized coun-
tries have managed to advance economically (e.g.,
Brazil, Singapore, and Korea), much of Africa and
the African diaspora continue to be economically
dependent. Coupled with this economic depend-
ence are persistently high rates of unemployment,
disease, educational disadvantage, and population
growth. Africans continue to be without signifi-
cant representation at the centers of international
power, judged by economic clout, political influ-
ence, and military might. In each of these aspects,
Africa remains the suppressed giant, unable to
exert world influence commensurate to her nearly
billion people, strategic geopolitical location, and
rich mineral and human resources. The emer-
gence of Africa onto the world stage, like Japan’s
in 1960 and China’s in 1980, will have to wait.UNIFYING THEMES IN AFRICAN STUDIESDue to historical context, we have seen there are
no simple answers to the basic questions for ori-
enting any scientific, sociological study of Africa
and her people. The African diaspora has been
uniquely shaped by experiences of conquest and
domination, resistance and survival. The experi-
ences of slavery, colonization, and external domi-
nation have left in their wake considerable devas-
tation. Yet one also sees the amazing strength of a
people able to adapt and diversify, and to love and
live, and ultimately continue to be.Studies of African people and institutions com-
monly reveal the creative retention of authentic or