Encyclopedia of Sociology

CLINICAL SOCIOLOGY

work; others are ‘‘applied’’ in that they only or
primarily conduct research that is of practical
interest. Some practitioners do both. Clinical soci-
ologists, for instance, may conduct research be-
fore beginning an intervention project to assess
the existing state of affairs, during an intervention
(e.g., to study the process of adaptation), and/or
after the completion of the intervention to evalu-
ate the outcome of that intervention. For some
clinical sociologists, the research activity is an im-
portant part of their own clinical work. These
sociologists have appropriate research training
and look for opportunities to conduct research.
Other clinical sociologists prefer to concentrate
on the interventions and leave any research to
other team members. Those clinical sociologists
who decide not to engage in research may have
research skills but prefer to conduct interventions,
may not have enough expertise in the conduct of
research, or may know that other team members
have more expertise in research.

THEORIES, METHODS, AND

INTERVENTION STRATEGIES

Clinical sociologists are expected to have educa-
tion and training in at least one area in addition to
sociology. This means that not only are clinical
sociologists exposed to the range of theories (e.g.,
symbolic interaction, structural-functionalism, con-
flict, social exchange) and quantitative and qualita-
tive research methods generally taught in sociolo-
gy programs, but they also have additional influences
from outside of their own programs. The result is
that clinical sociologists integrate and use a broad
range of theoretical and methodological approaches.

Clinical sociologists use existing theory to for-
mulate models that will be helpful in identifying
and understanding problems and also to identify
strategies to reduce or solve these problems. Clini-
cal sociologists also have shown that practice can
have an influence on existing theories and help in
the development of new ones.

While clinical sociologists use a wide variety of
research methods and techniques (e.g., participa-
tory action research, geographic information sys-
tems, focus group analysis, surveys), they probably
are best known for their case studies. Case studies
involve systematically assembling and analyzing

detailed, in-depth information about a person,

place, event, or group. This methodological ap-

proach involves many data-gathering techniques

such as document analysis, life histories, in-depth

interviews, and participant observation.

Clinical sociologists who have been in the field

for ten or twenty years probably learned about

intervention strategies primarily through courses

and workshops given outside of sociology depart-

ments as well as through their work and communi-

ty experiences. Clinical sociologists who have more

recently entered the field also may have learned

intervention techniques as part of their sociology

programs. These sociology programs might in-

clude courses, for instance, on focus groups, me-

diation, or administration, as well as require super-

vised residencies or internships.

CLINICAL SOCIOLOGY IN

INTERNATIONAL SETTINGS

Clinical sociology is as old as the field of sociology

and its roots are found in many parts of the world.

The clinical sociology specialization, for instance,

often is traced back to the fourteenth-century

work of the Arab scholar and statesperson Abd-al-

Rahman ibn Khaldun (1332–1406). Ibn Khaldun

provided numerous clinical observations based on

his varied work experiences such as Secretary of

State to the rule of Morocco and Chief Judge

of Egypt.

Auguste Comte (1798–1857) and Emile

Durkheim (1858–1917) are among those whose

work frequently is mentioned as precursors to the

field. Comte, the French scholar who coined the

term ‘‘sociology’’, believed that the scientific study

of societies would provide the basis for social

action. Emile Durkheim’s work on the relation

between levels of influence (e.g., social compared

to individual factors) led Alvin Gouldner (1965,

p.19) to write that ‘‘more than any other classical

sociologist (he) used a clinical model.’’

Interest in clinical sociology has been growing

in a number of countries. For example, French is

the predominant language of many, if not most, of

the current international clinical sociology confer-

ences, and books and articles have appeared with

clinical sociology in the title in France and French-

speaking Canada. The French-language clinical