COURTSHIPControl Policy 1998). Other investigations exam-
ine dating among herpes- and HIV-infected per-
sons. On the more positive and more conventional
side, some of the standard variables such as age
and education have been reexamined for their
impact on mate choice patterns (Qian 1998).
Earlier, the trend toward expanded gender
roles was noted. Considerable research interest
has been devoted to identifying the components
of conventional (traditional) masculinity and femi-
ninity and their effects, and on resistance to change
in these stereotypes—for example, because of on-
going conventional socialization practices and, as
communications experts have documented, be-
cause of the effects of various media portrayals
supporting the status quo ante. Scholars have also
noted the greater likelihood of relational success
among androgynous than among conventionally
masculine men and feminine women.
Research on courtship has extended to the
study of ‘‘taboo’’ conversational topics, degrees
and forms of honesty and deception, communica-
tion style differences between the sexes (one result
of differential socialization), and methods of con-
flict resolution that enhance relationship survival
or that presage relationship dissolution. Interest
in failed relationships has attempted to identify
factors at both individual and dyadic levels that
might have predicted which pairings would last
and which would not. In ongoing relationships,
scholars have investigated the positive and nega-
tive effects of outside influences such as parental
or peer pressure, and the parts played by same-
and cross-sex friends. Other topics of interest have
included barriers to the development of trust and
the effect of its loss, the meanings of commitment,
and the effects of self-disclosure, self-esteem, self-
awareness, and jealousy on close relationships.
We have witnessed a virtual explosion in the
study of love—attempts to identify its forms, its
properties, and its distribution of types across
women and men as well as the effects of all of
these, especially in terms of romantic love. On the
negative side, a number of studies of violence in
courtship have shown relatively high rates of this
kind of activity, especially between cohabitors—
and also reveal that a sizable minority of those who
have experienced violence in close relationships
identify it with a loving motive. This seemingly odd
justification is explained by the practices of par-
ents who, when using violence against their child-
ren, often indicate that they hit or spank ‘‘out of
love.’’ Thus, the lesson (i.e., the rationalization) is
learned early. Other negative aspects of courtship
include the study of ‘‘mind games’’ and other
facets of competition between partners, sexual
aggression including date/acquaintance rape, and
the effects of contrasts between idealized images
and courtship realities.As courtship itself has expanded, researchers
have taken a interest in an expanded range of
relationship types. For example, the romantic in-
volvements between lesbian women and between
gay men have been studied in their own right, and
also for comparative purposes with heterosexual
partnerships. A predictable area for future study is
the legalization of marital relationships between
same-sex partners.Other innovations such as video- and comput-
er-matching and personal advertisements in print
media have also captured researchers’ attention,
as has using the internet to make romantic con-
tacts (sometimes called ‘‘cyberdating’’). Scholars
can be expected to pursue the study of the impact
of prenuptial agreements on relationships. To a
lesser extent, older lines of research have contin-
ued to probe the purported decline of, or changes
in, the double standard, the ‘‘principle of least
interest’’ (Waller 1938) as related to changes in
gender roles, the dimensions of intimacy, and on
desired traits in dating partners as these may differ
between premarital partners and permanent mates.As society grows more complex and the rate of
change is increasingly rapid, confusion over the
mate-selection process in all of its dimensions
appears to be rife. A study of college student
dating shows that these young adults have ques-
tions about virtually every aspect of the process
and about the choices they make (Laner 1995).
High divorce rates have produced a backlash of
insecurity as the marriage decision approaches.
This is reflected in the frequently asked question,
‘‘How can I be sure of making the right choice in a
partner?’’ Sociologists and scholars in related dis-
ciplines continue to study a growing set of factors
that shed light on the answer.(SEE ALSO: Alternative Lifestyles; Love; Mate-Selection Theories)