CRIMINAL SANCTIONSHagedorn, John M. 1998 ‘‘Gang Violence in the Post-
Industrial Era.’’ In Michael Tonry and Mark H. Moore,
eds., Youth Violence, vol. 24, Crime and Justice. Chica-
go: University of Chicago Press.
———, with Perry Macon 1987 People and Folks: Gangs,
Crime, and the Underclass in a Rustbelt City. Chicago:
Lake View Press.
Herbert, Steve 1998 ‘‘Police Subculture Reconsidered.’’
Criminology 36:343–369.
Jansyn, Leon R. 1966 ‘‘Solidarity and Delinquency in a
Street-Corner Group.’’ American Sociological Review
31:600–614.
Klein, Malcolm W. 1995 The American Street Gang. New
York: Oxford University Press.
Klockars, Carl B. 1974 The Professional Fence. New York:
Free Press.
Messner, Steven F., and Richard Rosenfeld 1994 Crime
and the American Dream. Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth.
Miller, Walter B. 1958 ‘‘Lower Class Culture as a Gener-
ating Milieu of Gang Delinquency.’’ Journal of Social
Issues 14:5–19.
———, Hildred Geertz, Henry S. G. Cutter 1961 ‘‘Ag-
gression in a Boys’ Street-Corner Group.’’ Psychiatry
24:283–298.
Sampson, Robert J., S.W. Raudenbush, and F. Earls
1997 ‘‘Neighborhoods and Violent Crime: A Multilevel
Study of Collective Efficacy.’’ Science 277:918–924.
Schwartz, Gary 1987 Beyond Conformity or Rebellion: Youth
and Authority in America. Chicago: University of Chi-
cago Press.
Schwendinger, Herman, and Julia Siegel Schwendinger
1985 Adolescent Subcultures and Delinquency. New York:
Praeger.
Short, James F., Jr. 1998 ‘‘The Level of Explanation
Problem Revisited—The American Society of Crimi-
nology 1997 Presidential Address.’’ Criminology 36:3–36.
——— 1997 Poverty, Ethnicity, and Violent Crime. Boul-
der, Colo.: Westview.
———, and Fred L. Strodtbeck 1965 Group Process and
Gang Delinquency. Chicago: University of Chica-
go Press.
Sullivan, Mercer L. 1989 ‘‘Getting Paid’’: Youth Crime and
Work in the Inner City. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell Universi-
ty Press.
Sutherland, Edwin H. 1937 The Professional Thief. Chica-
go: University of Chicago Press.
Thrasher, Frederic M. 1927 The Gang: A Study of 1,313
Gangs in Chicago. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Tilly, Charles 1981 As Sociology Meets History. New York:
Academic Press.
Whyte, William Foote 1943 Street Corner Society. Chica-
go: University of Chicago Press.
Williams, Terry 1989 The Cocaine Kids: The Inside Story of
a Teenage Drug Ring. Menlo Park, Calif.: Addi-
son-Wesley.
Wilson, William Julius 1987 The Truly Disadvantaged:
The Inner City, the Underclass, and Public Policy. Chica-
go: University of Chicago Press.
Yinger, Milton 1960 ‘‘Contraculture and Subculture.’’
American Sociological Review 23:625–635.
——— 1977 ‘‘Countercultures and Social Change.’’
American Sociological Review 42:833–853.JAMES F. SHORT, JR.CRIMINAL SANCTIONS
The quality and quantity of normative sanctions
have been viewed as a reflection of the nature of
social solidarity (Durkheim 1964; Black 1976). In
simple societies where the level of willing con-
formity is high, normative sanctions tend to be
informal in nature, substantive in application, and
limited in use. In complex societies where levels of
willing conformity are lower, normative sanctions
are more likely to be formal in nature, procedural
in application, and frequent in use (Michalowski
1985). The increasing stratification, morphology,
and bureaucracy of modern society have given rise
to the predominance of formal justice in the form
of criminal law and criminal sanctions (Black 1976).
Consequently, the nature of crime has been trans-
formed from an offense committed by one indi-
vidual against another in the context of communi-
ty to an offense committed against the society as a
whole (Christie 1977). Behaviors considered harm-
ful to the moral, political, economic, or social well-
being of society are defined as criminal and there-
by worthy of formal state sanctions (Walker 1980).
Criminal behaviors include transgressions of both
the prohibitions and obligations that define a
particular society. Behaviors come to be defined as
crimes through the process of criminalization,
which includes the calculation of proportional
sanctions for each crime.Criminal sanctions include capital punishment,
imprisonment, corporal punishment, banishment,