The anaerobic nature of gymnastics should
place limitations on the total quantity of fat con-
sumed, since there would be difficulty in meta-
bolizing fat as an energy substrate during
training. Therefore, it appears that a conservative
distribution of energy substrates for gymnasts
should be as follows: 20–25% of total calories
from fat, 15% of total calories from protein, and
60–65% of total calories from carbohydrate. This
represents an energy distribution that is only
slightly lower in fat and slightly higher in carbo-
hydrate than that recommended for the general
population (30% from fat, 15% from protein, and
55% from carbohydrate) (Table 45.3) (Whitney et
al.1994).
Some studies suggest that intense exercise for
1 h can significantly lower liver glycogen, and
2 h of intense exercise may deplete both liver
glycogen and the glycogen in specific muscles
involved in the activity, particularly when carbo-
hydrate intake is inadequate (Bergstrom et al.
1967; Costill et al. 1971; Coggan & Coyle 1988).
Studies have also established the importance of
glycaemic index and timing of carbohydrate
ingestion as important factors in glycogen reple-
tion. (For issues related to glycogen storage, see
Chapter 7.) Results of these studies suggest that
the most rapid rise in postexercise muscle glyco-
gen occurs with high glycaemic index foods, and
that consumption of foods immediately follow-
594 sport-specific nutrition
ing exercise results in a better glycogen storage
than if food ingestion is delayed (Ivy et al. 1988;
Burkeet al. 1993).
While the requirement for carbohydrate is
high in gymnastic activities, it is unclear whether
gymnasts would benefit by pursuing a glycogen-
loading technique to enhance total glycogen
storage (Maughan & Poole 1981; Wooton &
Williams 1984). There is a particular concern that
a supersaturation of the tissues with glycogen
may cause excessive stiffness and a feeling of
heaviness because of the increased water reten-
tion associated with stored glycogen (2.7 g H 2 O
for each g of glycogen stored) (McArdle et al.
1986). This would be unacceptable in a sport
where flexibility is needed for achieving the
required skills. A reasonable approach therefore
would be one that encourages a high level of car-
bohydrate intake as a regular part of the diet
rather than the initiation of a protocol that would
lead to a supercompensation of carbohydrate in
the tissues.
Total energy intake in gymnasts is inadequate
and, of the energy consumed, too great a propor-
tion is derived from fats and too little from carbo-
hydrates (see Table 45.3). Of the 11 studies
reviewed, only one had a carbohydrate intake
greater than 60% from total kilocalories, and
seven of the studies had fat intakes greater than
30% of total kilocalories. The highest carbohy-Table 45.3Energy substrate distribution in different gymnastic populations, organized by age of subjects.
Subject Total Total Energy from Energy Energy
age energy energy carbohydrate from from
(years) (kJ) (kcal) (%) protein (%) fat (%) Reference
9.4±0.8 6934 ± 1525 1651 ± 363 52.3 15.9 32.1 Benardot et al. (1989)
11.4±0.9 7165 ± 1768 1706 ± 421 52.7 15.0 32.5 Benardot et al. (1989)
11.5±0.5 6586 1568 57.1 15.2 27.4 Ersoy (1991)
12.3±1.7 6518 ± 2138 1552 ± 509 47.7 15.3 36.0 Reggiani et al. (1989)
14.8 7325 1744 50.0 12.8 38.7 Calabrese (1985)
14.8±1.2 8106 ± 1911 1930 ± 455 52.0 15.0 32.0 Lindholm et al. (1995)
15.2±4.1 8077 ± 2831 1923 ± 674 46.1 15.4 28.3 Moffatt (1984)
15.8±0.9 6283 ± 1743 1496 ± 415 64.9 18.6 16.4 Benardot (1996)
19.7±0.2 5800 ± 458 1381 ± 109 52.1 15.5 31.1 Kirchner et al. (1995)
— 8736 2080 44.0 15.0 39.0 Short and Short (1983)
36.3±1.0 11 004± 1100 2620 ± 262 48.1 13.9 26.2 Kirchner et al. (1996)